Method for identifying dna base editing by means of cytosine deaminase

ABSTRACT

Provided are: a composition for DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), comprising (1) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, (2) a guide RNA, and (3) a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER); a method for producing DNA double-strand breaks by means of a cytosine deaminase using the composition; a method for analyzing a DNA nucleic acid sequence to which base editing has been introduced by means of a cytosine deaminase; and a method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) base editing, base editing efficiency at an on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target specificity by means of a cytosine deaminase.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Provided are: a composition for DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), comprising (1) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, (2) a guide RNA, and (3) a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER); a method of generating DNA double-strand breaks by means of a cytosine deaminase using the composition; a method for analyzing a DNA nucleic acid sequence to which base editing has been introduced by means of a cytosine deaminase; and a method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) base editing site, base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity, by means of a cytosine deaminase.

BACKGROUND ART

Cas9-linked deaminases enable single-nucleotide conversions in a targeted manner to correct point mutations causing genetic disorders or introduce single-nucleotide variations of interest in human and other eukaryotic cells. Genome-wide target-specificities of these RNA-programmable deaminases, however, remain largely unknown.

Four different classes of programmable deaminases have been reported to date: 1) base editors (BEs) comprising catalytically-deficient Cas9 (dCas9) derived from S. pyogenes or D10A Cas9 nickase (nCas9) and rAPOBEC1, a cytidine deaminase from rat, 2) target-AID (activation-induced cytidine deaminase) comprising dCas9 or nCas9 and PmCDA1, an AID ortholog from sea lamprey, or human AID, 3) CRISPR-X composed of dCas9 and sgRNAs linked to MS2 RNA hairpins to recruit a hyperactive AID variant fused to MS2-binding protein, and 4) zinc-finger proteins or transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) fused to a cytidine deaminase.

A programmable deaminase, consisting of a DNA binding module and cytidine deaminase, enables targeted nucleotide substitution or base editing in the genome without generating DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). Unlike programmable nuclease such as CRISPR-Cas9 and ZFNs, which induce small insertions or indels in the target site, programmable deaminases are able to convert C to T(U) (or to a lower frequency, C to G or A) within window of several nucleotides at a target site. Programmable deaminases can correct point mutations that cause genetic disorders in human cells, animals and plants, or can generate single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Despite broad interest in base editing by programmable deaminase, there has not been developed any means for analyzing target-specificity of programmable deaminase to whole genome. Therefore, it is required to develop technologies to analyze target-specificity of programmable diaminnase to whole genome, thereby analyzing base editing efficiency, off-target site, and off-target effect of programmable diaminnase.

DISCLOSURE Technical Problem

In this description, provided are technologies for analyzing target-specificity of a programmable deaminase to whole genome, and for analyzing base editing efficiency, off-target site, off-target effect, and the like of a programmable deaminase.

An embodiment provides a composition for DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) comprising (1) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene; (2) a guide RNA; and (3) a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER).

Another embodiment provides a method of generating DNA double strand break, the method comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; and

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER).

Another embodiment provides a method of analyzing nucleic acid sequence of DNA in which a base editing is introduced by cytosine deaminase, comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA;

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand break in the DNA; and

(iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment.

Another embodiment provides a method of identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or a target-specificity, of cytosine deaminase, comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA;

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand break in the DNA;

(iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment; and

(iv) identifying the double strand break site in the nucleic acid sequence read obtained by said analysis.

Technical Solution

In this description, a modified Digenome-seq is used to assess specificities of a base editor (e.g., Base Editor 3 (BE3), composed of a Cas9 nickase and a deaminase, in the human genome. Genomic DNA is treated with BE3 and a mixture of DNA-modifying enzymes in vitro to produce DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) at uracil-containing sites. BE3 off-target sites are computationally identified using whole genome sequencing data. BE3 is highly specific, inducing cytosine-to-uracil conversions at just 18±9 sites in the human genome. Digenome-seq is sensitive enough to capture BE3 off-target sites with a substitution frequency of 0.1%. Interestingly, BE3 and Cas9 off-target sites are often different, calling for independent assessments of genome-wide specificities.

First, a technique for generating double strand breaks in DNA using cytosine deaminase that does not induce double strand breakage in DNA, is provided.

An embodiment provides a composition for double strand breaks (DSBs) comprising (1) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene; (2) a guide RNA; and (3) a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER). The composition may be used in inducing DNA double-strand breaks using cytosine deaminase.

The cytosine deaminase refers to any enzyme having activity to convert a cytosine, which is found in nucleotide (e.g., cytosine present in double stranded DNA or RNA), to uracil (C-to-U conversion activity or C-to-U editing activity). The cytosine deaminase converts cytosine positioned on a strand where a PAM sequence linked to target sequence is present, to uracil. In an embodiment, the cytosine deaminase may be originated from mammals including primates such as humans and monkeys, rodents such as rats and mice, and the like, but not be limited thereto. For example, the cytosine deaminase may be at least one selected from the group consisting of enzymes belonging to APOBEC (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like) family, and for example, may be at least one selected from the following group, but not be limited to:

APOBEC1: Homo sapiens APOBEC1 (Protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001291495.1, NP_001635.2, NP_005880.2, etc.; gene (mRNA or cDNA; described in the order of the above listed corresponding proteins): GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001304566.1, NM_001644.4, NM_005889.3, etc.), Mus musculus APOBEC1 (protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001127863.1, NP_112436.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001134391.1, NM_031159.3, etc.);

APOBEC2: Homo sapiens APOBEC2 (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_006780.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_006789.3 etc.), mouse APOBEC2 (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_033824.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_009694.3, etc.);

APOBEC3B: Homo sapiens APOBEC3B (protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001257340.1, NP_004891.4, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001270411.1, NM_004900.4, etc.), Mus musculus APOBEC3B (proteins: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001153887.1, NP_001333970.1, NP_084531.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001160415.1, NM_001347041.1, NM_030255.3, etc.);

APOBEC3C: Homo sapiens APOBEC3C (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_055323.2 etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_014508.2 etc.);

APOBEC3D (including APOBEC3E): Homo sapiens APOBEC3D (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_689639.2, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_152426.3 etc.);

APOBEC3F: Homo sapiens APOBEC3F (protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_660341.2, NP_001006667.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_145298.5, NM_001006666.1, etc.);

APOBEC3G: Homo sapiens APOBEC3G (protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_068594.1, NP_001336365.1, NP_001336366.1, NP_001336367.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_021822.3, NM_001349436.1, NM_001349437.1, NM_001349438.1, etc.);

APOBEC3H: Homo sapiens APOBEC3H (protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001159474.2, NP_001159475.2, NP_001159476.2, NP_861438.3, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001166002.2, NM_001166003.2, NM_001166004.2, NM_181773.4, etc.);

APOBEC4 (including APOBEC3E): Homo sapiens APOBEC4 (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_982279.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_203454.2 etc.); mouse APOBEC4 (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_001074666.1, etc.; gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_001081197.1, etc.); and

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AICDA or AID): Homo sapiens AID (Protein: GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001317272.1, NP_065712.1, etc; Genes: GenBank Accession Nos. NM_001330343.1, NM_020661.3, etc.); mouse AID (protein: GenBank Accession No. NP_033775.1, etc., gene: GenBank Accession No. NM_009645.2, etc.), and the like.

As used herein, a target-specific nuclease is also referred to as a programmable nuclease, and refers to all types of endonuclease that are capable of recognizing and cleaving a specific target position on a genomic DNA.

For example, the target-specific nuclease may be at least one selected from the group consisting of all nucleases capable of recognizing a particular sequence of a target gene and having a nucleotide-cleavage activity thereby inducing insertion and/or deletion (Indel) on the target gene.

For example, the target-specific nuclease may be at least one selected from the group consisting of, but not limited to:

a transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN) wherein and a cleavage domain and a transcription activator-like effector domain derived from a plant pathogenic gene that is a domain that recognizes a specific target sequence on the genome are fused;

a zinc-finger nuclease;

a meganuclease;

a RGEN (RNA-guided engineered nuclease; e.g., Cas9, Cpf1, etc.) derived from microorganism immune system, CRISPR; and

an Ago homolog, DNA-guided endonuclease.

According to an embodiment, the target-specific nuclease may be at least one selected from the group consisting of endonucleases involved in type II and/or type V of the CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats) system, such as Cas protein (e.g., Cas9 protein (CRISPR associated protein 9)), Cpf1 protein (CRISPR from Prevotella and Francisella 1), etc. In this regard, the target-specific nuclease may further comprise a target DNA-specific guide RNA for guiding to an on-target site in genomic DNA. The guide RNA may be one transcribed in vitro, for example, from an oligonucleotide duplex or a plasmid template, but is not limited thereto. The target-specific nuclease and the guide RNA may form a ribonucleic acid-protein complex, to act in the form of ribonucleic acid protein (RNP).

Cas9 protein is a main protein component of the CRISPR/Cas system, which can function as an activated endonuclease or nickase.

Cas9 protein or gene information thereof may be acquired from a well-known database such as the GenBank of NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information). For example, the Cas9 protein may be at least one selected from the group consisting of, but not limited to:

a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus sp., for example, Streptococcus pyogenes (e.g., SwissProt Accession number Q99ZW2(NP_269215.1) (encoding gene: SEQ ID NO: 229);

a Cas9 protein derived from Campylobacter sp., for example, Campylobacter jejuni;

a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus sp., for example, Streptococcus thermophiles or Streptocuccus aureus;

a Cas9 protein derived from Neisseria meningitidis;

a Cas9 protein derived from Pasteurella sp., for example, Pasteurella multocida; and

a Cas9 protein derived from Francisella sp., for example, Francisella novicida.

Cpf1 protein, which is an endonuclease of a new CRISPR system distinguished from the CRISPR/Cas system, is small in size compared to Cas9, requires no tracrRNA, and can function with a single guide RNA. In addition, Cpf1 can recognize thymidine-rich PAM (protospacer-adjacent motif) sequences and produces cohesive double-strand breaks (cohesive end).

For example, the Cpf1 protein may be an endonuclease derived from Candidatus spp., Lachnospira spp., Butyrivibrio spp., Peregrinibacteria, Acidominococcus spp., Porphyromonas spp., Prevotella spp., Francisella spp., Candidatus Methanoplasma), or Eubacterium spp. Examples of the microorganism from which the Cpf1 protein may be derived include, but are not limited to, Parcubacteria bacterium (GWC2011_GWC2_44_17), Lachnospiraceae bacterium (MC2017), Butyrivibrio proteoclasiicus, Peregrinibacteria bacterium (GW2011_GWA_33_10), Acidaminococcus sp. (BV3L6), Porphyromonas macacae, Lachnospiraceae bacterium (ND2006), Porphyromonas crevioricanis, Prevotella disiens, Moraxella bovoculi (237), Smiihella sp. (SC_KO8D17), Leptospira inadai, Lachnospiraceae bacterium (MA2020), Francisella novicida (U112), Candidatus Methanoplasma termitum, Candidatus Paceibacter, and Eubacterium eligens.

The target-specific endonuclease may be a microorganism-derived protein or an artificial or non-naturally occurring protein obtained by a recombinant or synthesis method. By way of example, the target-specific endonuclease (e.g., Cas9, Cpf1, and the like) may be a recombinant protein produced with a recombinant DNA. As used herein, the term “recombinant DNA (rDNA)” refers to a DNA molecule artificially made by genetic recombination, such as molecular cloning, to include therein heterogenous or homogenous genetic materials derived from various organisms. For instance, when a target-specific endonuclease is produced in vivo or in vitro by expressing a recombinant DNA in an appropriate organism, the recombinant DNA may have a nucleotide sequence reconstituted with codons selected from among codons encoding the protein of interest in order to be optimal for expression in the organism.

The term “inactivated target-specific endonuclease”, as used herein, refers to a target-specific endonuclease that lacks the endonuclease activity of cleaving a DNA duplex. The inactivated target-specific endonuclease may be at least one selected from among inactivated target-specific endonucleases that lack endonuclease activity, but retain nickase activity, and inactivated target-specific endonuclease that lack both endonuclease activity and nickase activity. In an embodiment, the inactivated target-specific endonuclease may retain nickase activity. In this case, when a cytosine base is converted to a uracil base, a nick is introduced into a strand on which cytosine-to-uracil conversion occurs, or an opposite strand thereto simultaneously or sequentially irrespective of order (for example, a nick is introduced at a position between third and fourth nucleotides in the direction toward the 5′ end of a PAM sequence on a strand opposite to a strand having the PAM sequence). The modification (mutation) of such target-specific endonucleases may include substitution of a catalytic aspartate residue (for Streptococcus pyogenes-derived Cas9 protein, for example, at least one selected from the group consisting of aspartic acid at position 10 (D10)) with a different amino acid, and the different amino acid may be alanine, but is not limited thereto.

As used herein, the expression “different amino acid” may be intended to refer to an amino acid selected from among alanine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, tryptophan, valine, asparagine, cysteine, glutamine, glycine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine, histidine, lysine, and all known variants thereof, exclusive of the amino acid having a wild-type protein retained at the original substitution position.

In one embodiment, when the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a modified Cas9 protein, the Cas9 protein may be at least one selected from the group consisting of modified Cas9 that lacks endonuclease activity and retains nickase activity as a result of introducing mutation (for example, substitution with a different amino acid) to D10 of Streptococcus pyogenes-derived Cas9 protein (e.g., SwissProt Accession number Q99ZW2(NP_269215.1)), and modified Cas9 protein that lacks both endonuclease activity and nickase activity as a result of introducing mutations (for example, substitution with different mutations) to both D10 and H840 of Streptococcus pyogenes-derived Cas9 protein. In Cas9 protein, for example, the mutation at D10 may be D10A mutation (the amino acid D at position 10 in Cas9 protein is substituted with A; below, mutations introduced to Cas9 are expressed in the same manner), and the mutation at H840 may be H840A mutation.

The cytidine deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease may be used in the form of a fusion protein in which they are fused to each other directly or via a peptide linker (for example, existing in the order of cytidine deaminase-inactivated target-specific endonuclease in the N- to C-terminus direction (i.e., inactivated target-specific endonuclease fused to the C-terminus of cytidine deaminase) or in the order of inactivated target-specific endonuclease-cytidine deaminase in the N- to C-terminus direction (i.e., cytidine deaminase fused to the C-terminus of inactivated target-specific endonuclease) (or may be contained in the composition), a mixture of a purified cytidine deaminase or mRNA coding therefor and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease or mRNA coding therefor (or may be contained in the composition), a plasmid carrying both a cytidine deaminase-encoding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease-encoding gene (e.g., the two genes arranged to encode the fusion protein described above) (or may be contained in the composition), or a mixture of a cytidine deaminase expression plasmid and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease expression plasmid which carry a cytidine deaminase-encoding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease-encoding gene, respectively (or may be contained in the composition). In one embodiment, the cytidine deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease may be in the form of a fusion protein in which they exist in the order of cytidine deaminase-inactivated target-specific endonuclease in the N- to C-terminus direction or in the order of inactivated target-specific endonuclease-cytidine deaminase in the N- to C-terminus direction, or a single plasmid in which a cytidine deaminase-encoding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease-encoding gene are contained to encode the fusion protein.

So long as it carries the cytidine deaminase-encoding gene and/or the inactivated target-specific endonuclease-encoding gene and contains an expression system capable of expressing the gene in a host cell, any plasmid may be used. The plasmid contains elements for expressing a target gene, which include a replication origin, a promoter, an operator, and a terminator, and may further comprise an enzyme site suitable for introduction into the genome of a host cell (e.g., restriction enzyme site), a selection marker for identifying successful introduction into a host cell, a ribosome binding site (RBS) for translation into a protein, and/or a transcriptional regulatory factor. The plasmid may be one used in the art, for example, at least one selected from the group consisting of, but not limited to, pcDNA series, pSC101, pGV1106, pACYC177, ColE1, pKT230, pME290, pBR322, pUC8/9, pUC6, pBD9, pHC79, pIJ61, pLAFR1, pHV14, pGEX series, pET series, and pUC19. The host cell may be selected from among cells to which base editing or a double-strand break is intended to introduced by the cytidine deaminase (for example, eukaryotic cells including mammal cells such as human cells) and all cells that can express the cytidine deaminase-encoding gene and/or the inactivated target-specific endonuclease-encoding gene into cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease, respectively (for example, E. coli, etc.).

The guide RNA, which acts to guide a mixture or a fusion protein of the cytidine deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease to an on-target site, may be at least one selected from the group consisting of CRISPR RNA (crRNA), trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA), and single guide RNA (sgRNA), and may be, in detail, a crRNA:tracrRNA duplex in which crRNA and tracrRNA is coupled to each other, or a single-strand guide RNA (sgRNA) in which crRNA or a part thereof is connected to tracrRNA or a part thereof via an oligonucleotide linker.

Concrete sequences of the guide RNA may be appropriately selected, depending on kinds of the target-specific endonucleases used, or origin microorganisms thereof, and are an optional matter which could easily be understood by a person skilled in the art.

When a Streptococcus pyogenes-derived Cas9 protein is used as a target-specific endonuclease, crRNA may be represented by the following General Formula 1:

(General Formula 1) 5′-(N_(cas9))_(I)-(GUUUUAGAGCUA)-(Xcas9)m-3′

wherein,

N_(cas9) is a targeting sequence, that is, a region determined according to a sequence at an on-target site in a target gene (i.e., a sequence hybridizable with a sequence of an on-target site), I represents a number of nucleotides included in the targeting sequence and is an integer of 17 to 23 or 18 to 22, for example, 20;

the region including 12 consecutive nucleotides (GUUUUAGAGCUA; SEQ ID NO: 230) adjacent to the 3′-terminus of the targeting sequence is essential for crRNA,

X_(cas9) is a region including m nucleotides present at the 3′-terminal site of crRNA (that is, present adjacent to the 3′-terminus of the essential region), and m may be an integer of 8 to 12, for example, 11 wherein the m nucleotides may be the same or different and are independently selected from the group consisting of A, U, C, and G.

In an embodiment, the X_(cas9) may include, but is not limited to, UGCUGUUUUG (SEQ ID NO: 231).

In addition, the tracrRNA may be represented by the following General Formula 2:

(General Formula 2) 5′-(Y_(cas9))_(p)-(UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCGU UAUCAACUUGAAAAAGUGGCACCGAGUCGGUGC)-3′

wherein,

the region represented by 60 nucleotides (UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCGUUAUCAACUUGAAAAAGUGGCA CCGAGUCGGUGC; SEQ ID NO: 232) is essential for tracrRNA,

Y_(cas9) is a region including p nucleotides present adjacent to the 3′-terminus of the essential region, and p may be an integer of 6 to 20, for example, 8 to 19 wherein the p nucleotides may be the same or different and are independently selected from the group consisting of A, U, C, and G.

Further, sgRNA may form a hairpin structure (stem-loop structure) in which a crRNA moiety including the targeting sequence and the essential region thereof and a tracrRNA moiety including the essential region (60 nucleotides) thereof are connected to each other via an oligonucleotide linker (responsible for the loop structure). In greater detail, the sgRNA may have a hairpin structure in which a crRNA moiety including the targeting sequence and essential region thereof is coupled with the tracrRNA moiety including the essential region thereof to form a double-strand RNA molecule with connection between the 3′ end of the crRNA moiety and the 5′ end of the tracrRNA moiety via an oligonucleotide linker.

In one embodiment, sgRNA may be represented by the following General Formula 3:

(General Formula 3) 5′-(N_(cas9))_(I)-(GUUUUAGAGCUA)-(oligonucleotide linker)-(UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCGUUAUCAAC UUGAAAAAGUGGCACCGAGUCGGUGC)-3′

wherein, (N_(cas9))_(I) is a targeting sequence defined as in General Formula 1.

The oligonucleotide linker included in the sgRNA may be 3-5 nucleotides long, for example 4 nucleotides long in which the nucleotides may be the same or different and are independently selected from the group consisting of A, U, C, and G.

The crRNA or sgRNA may further contain 1 to 3 guanines (G) at the 5′ end thereof (that is, the 5′ end of the targeting sequence of crRNA).

The tracrRNA or sgRNA may further comprise a terminator inclusive of 5 to 7 uracil (U) residues at the 3′ end of the essential region (60 nt long) of tracrRNA.

The target sequence for the guide RNA may be about 17 to about 23 or about 18 to about 22, for example, 20 consecutive nucleotides adjacent to the 5′ end of PAM (Protospacer Adjacent Motif (for S. pyogenes Cas9, 5′-NGG-3′ (N is A, T, G, or C)) on a target DNA.

As used herein, the term “the targeting sequence” of guide RNA hybridizable with the target sequence for the guide RNA refers to a nucleotide sequence having a sequence complementarity of 50% or higher, 60% or higher, 70% or higher, 80% or higher, 90% or higher, 95% or higher, 99% or higher, or 100% to a nucleotide sequence of a complementary strand to a DNA strand on which the target sequence exists (i.e., a DNA strand having a PAM sequence (5′-NGG-3′ (N is A, T, G, or C))) and thus can complimentarily couple with a nucleotide sequence of the complementary strand.

In the present specification, a nucleic acid sequence at an on-target site is represented by that of the strand on which a PAM sequence exists among two DNA strands in a region of a target gene. In this regard, the DNA strand to which the guide RNA couples is complementary to a strand on which a PAM sequence exists. Hence, the targeting sequence included in the guide RNA has the same nucleic acid sequence as a sequence at an on-target site, with the exception that U is employed instead of T due to the RNA property. In other words, a targeting sequence of guide RNA and a sequence at the on-target site (or a sequence of a cleavage site) are represented by the same nucleic acid sequence with the exception that T and U are interchanged, in the present specification.

The guide RNA may be used in the form of RNA (or may be contained in the composition) or in the form of a plasmid carrying a DNA coding for the RNA (or may be contained in the composition).

The uracil-specific excision reagent (USER) may include any agent capable of removing uracil that is converted from cytosine by cytosine deaminase and/or introducing DNA cleavage at the position where uracil is removed.

In an embodiment, the uracil-specific excision reagent (USER) may comprise a uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG), endonuclease VIII, or a combination thereof. In an embodiment, the uracil-specific removal reagent may comprise a combination of endonuclease VIII or uracil DNA glycosylase and endonuclease VIII.

The uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) may refer to an enzyme that acts to remove uracil (U) present in DNA thereby preventing mutagenesis of DNA. It may be at least one selected from the group consisting of enzymes that cleave N-glycosylic bond of uracil to initiate base-excision repair (BER). For example, the uracil DNA glycosylase may be an Escherichia coli uracil DNA glycosylase (e.g., GenBank Accession Nos. ADX49788.1, ACT28166.1, EFN36865.1, BAA10923.1, ACA76764.1, ACX38762.1, EFU597681, EFU53885.1, EFJ57281.1, EFU47398.1, EFK71412.1, EFJ92376.1, EFJ79936.1, EF059084.1, EFK47562.1, KXH01728.1, ESE25979.1, ESD99489.1, ESD73882.1, ESD69341.1, etc.), human uracil DNA glycosylase (for example, GenBank Accession Nos. NP_003353.1, NP_550433.1, etc.), mouse uracil DNA glycosylase (for example, GenBank Accession Nos. NP_001035781.1, NP_035807.2, etc.), and the like; but not be limited thereto.

The endonuclease VIII functions to remove the uracil-deleted nucleotides. It may be at least one selected from the group consisting of enzymes having N-glycosylase activity to remove uracil damaged by the uracil DNA glycosylase from double-stranded DNA and AP-lyase activity to cut 3′ and 5′ ends of apurinic site (AP site) which is generated by the removal of damaged uracil. For example, the endonuclease VIII may be human endonuclease VIII (e.g., GenBank Accession Nos. BAC06476.1, NP_001339449.1, NP_001243481.1, NP_078884.2, NP_001339448.1, etc.), mouse endonuclease VIII (e.g., GenBank Accession Nos. BAC06477.1, NP082623.1, etc.), Escherichia coli endonuclease VIII (e.g., GenBank Accession Nos. OBZ49008.1, OBZ43214.1, OBZ42025.1, ANJ41661.1, KYL40995.1, KMV55034.1, KMV53379.1, KMV50038.1, KMV40847.1, AQW72152.1, etc.), but not be limited thereto.

In another embodiment, in case of using an inactivated target-specific endonuclease lacking nickase activity as well as endonuclease activity, such as a modified Cas9 which is generated by introducing both of D10A and H840A into Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes; for generating double strand cleavage, the composition may further comprise an endonuclease capable of specifically degrading a DNA single strand region generated by removing uracil on one strand among two strands of DNA (the endonuclease may cleave phosphodiester bonds of both ends of DNA single strand region). The endonuclease capable of specifically degrading a single strand region of DNA may be at least one selected from the group consisting of S1 nuclease (derived from Aspergillus oryzae; e.g., catalog number M5791 (Promega), etc.), Mung bean nuclease, and the like.

By using a cytosine deaminase, an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, and a uracil-specific excision reagent, a double strand break can be generated at a site where a base conversion (base editing) from cytosine to uracil (C→U) by cytosine deaminase occurs (FIG. 4a ). The DNA cleavage fragments generated as above have staggered ends. Thereafter, an end repair process may optionally occur, whereby DNA fragments (double stranded) with blunted ends can be generated (see FIG. 4a ).

Another embodiment provides a method of generating double strand break using a cytosine deaminase, the method comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; and

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER).

By generating (or introducing) a double strand break into DNA using cytosine deaminase, a base editing (i.e., conversion from C to U) site, a base editing efficiency by a cytosine deaminase, and the like can be analyzed, thereby identifying (or measuring) a base editing efficiency at on-target site, specificity to on-target sequence, an off-target sequence, etc., of cytosine deaminase.

Another embodiment provides a method of analyzing nucleic acid sequence of DNA in which a base editing is introduced by cytosine deaminase, comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA;

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand break in the DNA; and

(iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment.

Another embodiment provides a method of identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or a target-specificity, of cytosine deaminase, comprising:

(i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA;

(ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand break in the DNA;

(iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment; and

(iv) identifying the double strand break site in the nucleic acid sequence read obtained by said analysis.

The cytosine deaminase, inactivated target-specific endonuclease, plasmid, guide RNA and uracil-specific excision reagent are as described above.

The method may be carried out in a cell or in vitro, for example, it may be carried out in vitro. More specifically, all steps of the method are carried out in vitro; or step (i) is carried out in a cell, and step (ii) and subsequent steps are carried out in vitro using DNA (e.g., genomic DNA) extracted from the cell used in step (i).

Said step (i) comprises transfecting a cell or contacting (e.g., co-incubating) DNA extracted from the cell with a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease (or coding genes thereof) together with a guide RNA, to induce conversion from cytosine to uracil and generation of DNA nick in a target site targeted by the guide RNA. The cell may be selected from all eukaryotic cells which are desired to be introduced with a base editing by cytosine deaminase, and for example, it may be selected from mammalian cells including human cells. The transfection can be carried out by introducing a plasmid containing a gene encoding a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease into a cell by any conventional means. For example, the plasmid may be introduced into a cell by electroporation, lipofection, and the like, but not be limited thereto.

In one embodiment, step (i) may be performed by culturing DNA extracted from a cell (a cell to which base editing (e.g., a base editing site, base editing efficiency, etc.) by a cytosine deaminase is to be examined) together with a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease (e.g., a fusion protein comprising a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease) and a guide RNA (in vitro). The DNA extracted from the cell may be a genomic DNA or a PCR (polymerase chain reaction) amplification product containing a target gene or a target site.

Said step (ii) may comprise removing a base modified with uracil in the step (i) to generate DNA double strand break. More specifically, step (ii) may comprise treating (contacting) uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG), endonuclease VIII, or a combination thereof to the reaction product obtained in step (i). When both of uracil DNA glycosylase and endonuclease VIII are treated (contacted), they can be treated at the same time or sequentially in any order. The step of contacting (contacting) may be carried out by incubating the reaction product obtained in step (i) with uracil DNA glycosylase and/or endonuclease VIII.

When step (i) is carried out in a cell (i.e., when the cell is transfected), the reaction sample of step (ii) may comprise DNA isolated from the transfected cell. When step (i) is carried out in vitro for DNA extracted (separated) from a cell, the reaction sample of step (ii) may comprise isolated DNA treated with a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease and a guided RNA.

In another embodiment, when an inactivated target-specific endonuclease generated by introducing both of D10A and H840A into Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes is used in step (i), since the inactivated target-specific endonuclease lacks nickase activity as well as endonuclease activity, for generating double strand cleavage, the method may further comprise a step (step (ii-1)) of treating an endonuclease capable of specifically degrading a DNA single strand region generated by removing uracil on one strand among two strands of DNA (the endonuclease may cleave phosphodiester bonds of both ends of DNA single strand region), after step (ii) and before step (iii) (FIG. 22 (a)). The endonuclease capable of specifically degrading a single strand region of DNA may be S1 nuclease, but not be limited thereto.

Optionally, the method may further comprise a step of removing the cytosine deaminase, inactivated target-specific endonuclease, and/or guide RNA used in step (i), after performing (finishing) step (i) and prior to performing step (ii). The cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease are used together with a guide RNA, thereby having sequence specificity, and thus, they mostly act on an on-target site; however, if similar sequences to a target sequence of on-target site are present on an off-target site, they may also act on the off-target site. As used herein, the term “off-target site” may refer to a site that is not an on-target site, but to which the cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease have activity. That is, the off-target site may refer to a site where base editing and/or cleavage by cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease occurs, besides an on-target site. In an embodiment, the term “off-target site” may used to cover not only sites that are not on-target sites of the cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease, but also sites having possibility to be off-target sites thereof. The off-target sites may refer to, but not be limited to, any sites that are cleaved by the cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease in vitro, besides on-target sites.

The activity of cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease on sites besides an on-target site may be caused by various reasons. For example, a sequence (off-target sequence) other than target sequence having low mismatch level to a target sequence designed for a desired target site and high sequence homology with the target sequence, may act as an on-target sequence of cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease used. The off-target sequence may be a sequence (gene region) having 1 to 6, 1 to 5, 1 to 4, 1 to 3, 1 to 2, or 1 nucleotide mismatch to a target sequence, but not be limited thereto.

The working of the deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease in an off-target site may incur undesirable mutation in a genome, which may lead to a significant problem. Hence, a process of accurately detecting and analyzing an off-site sequence may be as very important as the activity of the deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease at an on-target site. The process may be useful for developing a deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease which both work specifically only at on-target sites without the off-target effect.

Because the cytidine deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease have activities in vivo and in vitro for the purpose of the present invention, the enzymes can be used in detecting in vitro an off-target site of DNA (e.g., genomic DNA). When applied in vivo, thus, the enzymes are expected to be active in the same sites (gene loci including off-target sequences) as the detected off-target sites.

Step (iii) is a step of analyzing nucleic acid sequence of DNA fragments cleaved in step (ii), and can be performed by any conventional method for analyzing nucleic acid sequence. For example, when the separate DNA used in step (i) is a genomic DNA, the nucleic acid sequence analysis may be conducted by whole genome sequencing. In contrast to the indirect method in which a sequence having a homology with the sequence at an on-target site is searched for and would be predicted to be off-target site, whole genome sequencing allows for detecting an off-target site actually cleaved by the target-specific nuclease at the level of the entire genome, thereby more accurately detecting an off-target site.

As used herein, the term “whole genome sequencing” (WGS) refers to a method of reading the genome by many multiples such as in 10×, 20×, and 40× formats for whole genome sequencing by next generation sequencing. The term “Next generation sequencing” means a technology that fragments the whole genome or targeted regions of genome in a chip-based and PCR-based paired end format and performs sequencing of the fragments by high throughput on the basis of chemical reaction (hybridization).

In the step (iv), a DNA cleavage site is identified (or determined) using the base sequence data (sequence read) obtained in step (ii). By analyzing the sequencing data, an on-target site and an off-target site can simply be detected. The determination of a site at which DNA is cleaved from the base sequence data can be performed by various approaches. In the specification, various reasonable methods are provided for determining the site. However, they are merely illustrative examples that fall within the technical spirit of the present invention, but are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention.

As an example of determining a cleaved site, when the sequence reads obtained by whole genome sequencing are aligned according to sites on a genome, the site at which the 5′ ends are vertically (straightly) aligned may mean the site at which DNA is cleaved. The alignment of the sequence reads according to sites on genomes may be performed using an analysis program (for example, BWA/GATK or ISAAC). As used herein, the term “vertical alignment” refers to an arrangement in which the 5′ ends of two more sequence reads start at the same site (nucleotide position) on the genome for each of the adjacent Watson strand and Crick strand when the whole genome sequencing results are analyzed with a program such as BWA/GATK or ISAA. Through this method, the DNA fragments that are cleaved in step (ii) and thus have the same 5′ end are each sequenced.

That is, when the cleavage in step (ii) occurs at on-target sites and off-target sites, the alignment of the sequence reads allows the vertical alignment of the common cleaved sites because each of their sites start at the 5′ end. However, the 5′ end is not present in the uncleaved sites, so that it can be arranged in a staggered manner in alignment. Accordingly, the vertically aligned site may be regarded as a site cleaved in step (i), which means an on-target site or off-target site cleaved by the inactivated target-specific endonuclease.

The term “alignment” means mapping sequence reads to a reference genome and then aligning the bases having identical sites in genomes to fit for each site. Accordingly, so long as it can align sequence reads in the same manner as above, any computer program may be employed. The program may be one already known in the pertinent art or may be selected from among programs tailored to the purpose. In one embodiment, alignment is performed using ISAAC, but is not limited thereto.

As a result of the alignment, the site at which the DNA is cleaved by the deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease can be determined by a method such as finding a site where the 5′ end is vertically aligned as described above, and the cleaved site may be determined as an off-target site if not an on-target site. In other words, a sequence is an on-target site if identical to the base sequence designed as an on-target site of the deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease, and is regarded as an off-target site if not identical to the base sequence. This is obvious according to the definition of an off-target site described above. The off-target site may comprise a sequence having homology with the sequence of on-target site; in particular, a sequence having at least one nucleotide mismatch with the on-target site; more particularly, a sequence having 1 to 6, 1 to 5, 1 to 4, 1 to 3, 1 to 2, or 1 nucleotide mismatch with the on-target site; however, the off-target site does not limited thereto, but includes any site capable of being cleaved by the cytidine deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease used.

In another example, in addition to finding a vertically aligned position at the 5′ end, when the double peak pattern is seen in 5′ end plot, the position can be determined as an off-target site if it is not on-target site. When a graph is drawn by counting the number of nucleotides constituting 5′ end having the same base for each site in a genomic DNA, a double peak pattern appears at a specific position. This is because the double peak is caused by each strand of a double strand cleaved by a cytidine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease.

Therefore, the method of identifying an off-target site may further comprise, after the step (iv), determining the cleaved site as an off-target site when the site is not an on-target site.

In an embodiment, the steps (i) and (ii) are conducted with regard to the genomic DNA to induce a double-strand break and after the whole genome analysis (step (iii), the DNA reads are aligned with ISAAC to identify alignment patterns for vertical alignment at cleaved sites and staggered alignment at uncleaved sites. A unique pattern of double peaks may appear at the cleavage sites as represented by a 5′ end plot.

Moreover, as a non-limiting examples, a site where two or more sequence reads corresponding to each of Watson strand and Crick strand are aligned vertically may be determined as an off-target site. In addition, a site where 20% or more of sequence reads are vertically aligned and the number of sequence reads having the same 5′ end in each of the Watson and Crick strands is 10 or more is determined as an off-target site, that is, a cleavage site.

The process in steps (iii) and (iv) of the method described above may be Digenome-seq (digested-genome sequencing). For greater details, reference may be made to Korean Patent No. 10-2016-0058703 A (this document is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety).

Base editing sites (i.e., double-strand break site) of cytidine deaminase, base editing efficiency at on-target sites or target-specificity (i.e., [base editing frequency at on-target sites]/[base editing frequency over entire sequence]), and/or off-target sites (identified as base editing sites of deaminase, but not on-target sites) can be identified (or measure or detected) by the method described above.

The identification (detection) of an off-target site is performed in vitro by treating a genomic DNA with the deaminase and the inactivated target-specific endonuclease. Thus, it can be identified whether off-target effects are actually produced also in vivo in the off-target site detected by this method. However, this is merely an additional verification process, and thus is not a step that is essentially entailed by the scope of the present invention, and is merely a step that can be additionally performed according to the needs.

In the present specification, the term “off-target effect” is intended to mean a level at which base editing and/or double-strand break occurs at an off-target site. The term “indel” (insertion and/or deletion) is a generic term for a mutation in which some bases are inserted or deleted in the middle of a base sequence of DNA.

In another embodiment, a method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity of a cytosine deaminase can be conducted by a method other than the Digenome-seq method as described above.

In a concrete embodiment, the method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity of a cytosine deaminase may be conducted by circle-seq method (FIG. 20a ). For example, the method may comprise the following steps of:

(i) fragmenting and circularizing a genomic DNA extracted from a cell;

(ii) treating the circularized DNA fragment with a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, followed by treating with a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate a double stranded break in the circularized DNA fragment; and

(iii) constructing a library using the DNA fragment in which double-strand break is generated, and performing next-generation genome sequencing (NGS).

The cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease in step (ii) may be used together with a guide RNA.

In another concrete embodiment, the method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity of a cytosine deaminase may be conducted by Bless method (FIG. 20b ). For example, the method may comprise the following steps of:

(i) contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, with a cell or DNA isolated from a cell;

(ii) treating uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate a double stranded break in DNA;

(iii) labeling an end of the cleaved DNA fragment and capturing the labeled DNA fragment;

(iv) amplifying the captured DNA fragment and performing next generation dielectric sequencing (NGS).

The cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or a gene encoding the same, or a plasmid comprising the gene in step (i) may be used together with a guide RNA or DNA encoding the guide RNA or a plasmid comprising the DNA.

In another concrete embodiment, the method for identifying (or measuring or detecting) a base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity of a cytosine deaminase may be conducted by DSBCapture method (FIG. 20c ). For example, the method may comprise the following steps of:

(i) contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, with a cell or DNA isolated from a cell;

(ii) treating uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate a double stranded break in DNA;

(iii) performing an end repair and adaptor ligation for the cleaved DNA fragment; and

(iv) amplifying the DNA fragment obtained in step (iii) and performing next generation dielectric sequencing (NGS).

The cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or a gene encoding the same, or a plasmid comprising the gene in step (i) may be used together with a guide RNA or DNA encoding the guide RNA or a plasmid comprising the DNA.

Effect of the Invention

The method of generating DNA double-strand break and technologies for analyzing nucleic acid sequence using the method can achieve more accurate and efficient validation of base editing site, a base editing efficiency at on-target site, an off-target site, and/or target-specificity of a cytosine deaminase.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1a shows the base editing efficiency resulted by BE1 (APOBEC1-dCas9), BE2 (APOBEC1-dCas9-UGI) and BE3 (APOBEC1-nCas9-UGI) (Reference Example 1) on 7 endogenous on-target sites (EMX1, FANCF, HEK2, RNF2, HEK3, HEK4, HBB) in HEK293T cells.

FIG. 1b shows the frequency of Cas9 nuclease-induced mutation measured by targeted deep sequencing at 7 endogenous on-target sites in HEK293T cells.

FIG. 1c is a graph representatively showing base editing efficiency or ranking of indel frequency at 7 endogenous target sites.

FIG. 2a is a graph showing mutation frequency at one of 3 endogenous sites (EMX1) of HEK293T cells which are co-transfected with sgRNA having 0 to 4 mismatches and a plasmid encoding BE3 or Cas9 (wherein the nucleic acid sequences listed are sequentially numbered from SEQ ID NO: 1 to SEQ ID NO: 31 in the downward direction on the graph).

FIG. 2b is a graph showing mutation frequency at one of 3 endogenous sites (HBB) of HEK293T cells which are co-transfected with sgRNA having 0 to 4 mismatches and a plasmid encoding BE3 or Cas9 (wherein the nucleic acid sequences listed are sequentially numbered from SEQ ID NO: 32 to SEQ ID NO: 62 in the downward direction on the graph).

FIG. 2c is a graph showing mutation frequency at one of 3 endogenous sites (RNF2) of HEK293T cells which are co-transfected with sgRNA having 0 to 4 mismatches and a plasmid encoding BE3 or Cas9 (wherein the nucleic acid sequences listed are sequentially numbered from SEQ ID NO: 63 to SEQ ID NO: 93 in the downward direction on the graph).

FIG. 3a is a graph showing Cas9 nuclease associated indel frequency and BE associated base editing frequency at EMX1 site.

FIG. 3b is a graph showing Cas9 nuclease associated indel frequency and BE associated base editing frequency at HBB site.

FIG. 3c is a graph showing Cas9 nuclease associated indel frequency and BE associated base editing frequency at RNF2 site.

FIG. 4a is a schematic view of BE3 Digenome-seq.

FIG. 4b is an electrophoresis image showing the PCR products cleaved by treating BE3 and/or USER.

FIG. 4c is a Sanger sequencing result showing C-to-U conversion by BE3 and DNA cleavage by USER.

FIG. 4d is an IGV image showing straight alignment of the sequence read at on-target site of EMX1.

FIG. 5 is an IGV image showing straight alignment of sequence reads at 6 different on-target sites.

FIGS. 6a (EMX1) and 6 b (HBB) are genome-wide circus plots representing DNA cleavage scores obtained with intact genomic DNA (gray: first layer from the center) and genomic DNA digested with BE3 and USER (blue: second layer from the center) or with Cas9 (red; third layer from the center, only present in FIG. 6b ), where the arrow indicates on-target site.

FIGS. 6c (EMX1) and 6 d (HBB) show sequence logos obtained via WebLogo using DNA sequences at Digenome-capture sites (Tables 2-8) (DNA cleavage score >2.5).

FIGS. 6e (EMXI) and 6 f (HBB) represent scatterplots of BE3-mediated substitution frequencies vs Cas9-mediated indel frequencies determined using targeted deep sequencing, wherein circled dots indicate off-target sites validated by BE3 but invalidated by Cas9.

FIGS. 6g (EMX1) and 6 h (HBB) show BE3 off-target sites validated in HEK293T cells by targeted deep sequencing, wherein PAM sequences are the last 3 nucleotides at 3′ end, mismatched bases are shown in small letters, and dashes indicate RNA bulges (Error bars indicate s.e.m. (n=3)).

FIG. 7 is a Venn diagram showing the number of sites with DNA cleavage scores 2.5 or higher identified by Digenome-seq of Cas9 nuclease- and Base editor-treated genomic DNA.

FIG. 8 is a graph showing the number of total sites (▪) and the number of PAM-containing sites with ten or fewer mismatches (□) for a range of DNA cleavage scores.

FIG. 9 is a Venn diagram showing the number of PAM-containing homologous sites with DNA cleavage scores over 0.1 or higher identified by Digenome-seq of Cas9 nuclease- and Base editor-treated genomic DNA.

FIG. 10 shows fractions of homologous sites captured by Digenome-seq, wherein bars represent the number of homologous sites that differ from on-target sites by up to 6 nt, squares (BE3) and triangles (Cas9) represent the fraction of Digenome-seq captured sites for a range of mismatch numbers.

FIGS. 11a and 11b are graphs showing the significant correlation between the number of BE3- and Cas9-associated sites identified by Digenome 1.0 (11 a) and Digenome 2.0 (11 b).

FIGS. 12a and 12b are graphs showing the significant correlation between the number of BE3-associated sites identified by Digenome 1.0 (12 a) or Digenome 2.0 (12 b) and the number of sites with 6 or fewer mismatches.

FIG. 13 shows examples of Digenome-captured off-target sites associated only with Cas9, which contain no cytosines at positions 4-9.

FIGS. 14a-14c show base editing efficiencies at Digenome-captured sites associated only with 3 different Cas9 nucleases.

FIGS. 15a-15c show base editing efficiencies of 3 different BE3 deaminases at Digenome-negative sites.

FIG. 16a is a schematic view showing conventional (gX₁₉ sgRNA), truncated (gX₁₈ or gX₁₇ sgRNA), and extended sgRNAs (gX₂₀ or ggX₂₀ sgRNA).

FIG. 16b shows base-editing frequencies at the HBB on- and off-target sites in HEK293T cells measured by targeted deep sequencing.

FIG. 17 shows the result of reducing BE3 off-target effects using modified sgRNAs, wherein 17 a shows a schematic view of conventional sgRNAs (GX₁₉ sgRNA) and modified sgRNAs (GX₁₇ sgRNA, gX₁₈ sgRNA, gX₂₀ sgRNA, and ggX₂₀ sgRNA), and 17 b shows base editing efficiencies (frequencies) measured at the EMX1 on- and off-target sites by targeted deep sequencing in HEK293T cells.

FIG. 18a is a cleavage map of plasmid rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9-NLS.

FIG. 18b is a cleavage map of plasmid rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9-UGI-NLS.

FIG. 18C is a cleavage map of plasmid rAPOBEC1-XTEN-Cas9n-UGI-NLS.

FIG. 19 is a cleavage map of Cas9 expression plasmid.

FIG. 20 is a cleavage map of plasmid pET28b-BE1 encoding His6-rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9.

FIGS. 21a to 21c are schematic overviews of genome-wide off-target profiling by a method other than Digenome-seq, wherein FIG. 21a illustrates a method using circle-seq, FIG. 21b illustrates a method using Bless, and FIG. 21c illustrates a method using DSBCapture.

FIG. 22 shows process and results of BE1 (rAPOBEC1-dCas9)-mediated double strand breaks (DSBs), wherein (a) schematically shows precesses to generate DBS using BE1 (rAPOBEC1-dCas9), USER enzyme, and 51 nuclease, and (B) is an agarose gel electrophoresis image showing BE1-mediated DSB results in PCR amplicons obtained after treating BE1/sgRNA, USER enzyme, and 51 nuclease.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in more detail with reference to the following examples. However, these are only for illustrating the present invention, and the scope of the present invention is not limited by these examples.

Reference Example

1. Cell Culture and Transfection

HEK293T cells (ATCC CRL-11268) were maintained in DMEM (Dulbecco Modified Eagle Medium) supplemented with 10% (w/v) FBS and 1% (w/v) penicillin/streptomycin (Welgene). HEK293T cells (1.5×10⁵) were seeded on 24-well plates and transfected at ˜80% confluency with sgRNA plasmid (500 ng) and Base Editor plasmid (Addgene plasmid #73019 (Expresses BE1 with C-terminal NLS in mammalian cells; rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9-NLS; FIG. 18a ), #73020 (Expresses BE2 in mammalian cells; rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9-UGI-NLS; FIG. 18b ), #73021 (Expresses BE3 in mammalian cells; rAPOBEC1-XTEN-Cas9n-UGI-NLS; FIG. 18c )) (1.5 μg) or Cas9 expression plasmid (Addgene plasmid #43945; FIG. 19), using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen). Genomic DNA was isolated using DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen) at 72 hours after transfection. The cells were not tested for mycoplasma contamination. The sgRNA used in the following Examples was constructed by converting T to U on the overall sequence at an on-target site (on-target sequence; see Tables 1-8), except the 5′-terminal PAM sequence (5′-NGG-3′; wherein N is A, T, G, or C), and employing the converted sequence as the targeting sequence ‘(N_(cas9))_(I’) of the following General Formula 3: 5′-(N_(cas9))₁-(GUUUUAGAGCUA)-(GAAA)-(UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCGUUAUCAACUUGAAAAAGUGGCA CCGAGUCGGUGC)-3′ (General Formula 3; oligonucleotide linker: GAAA).

2. Protein Purification

The His6-rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9 protein-coding plasmid (pET28b-BE1; Expresses BE1 with N-terminal His6 tag in E. coli; FIG. 20) was generously given by David Liu (Addgene plasmid #73018). The His6-rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9 protein-coding plasmid pET28b-BE1 was converted into a His6-rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein (BE3 delta UGI; BE3 variant lacking a UGI domain)-coding plasmid (pET28b-BE3 delta UGI) by site directed mutagenesis for substituting A840 with H840 in the dCas9.

Rosetta expression cells (Novagen, catalog number: 70954-3CN) were transformed with the prepared pET28b-BE1 or pET28b-BE3 delta UGI and cultured overnight in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth containing 100 μg/ml kanamycin and 50 mg/ml carbenicilin at 37° C. Ten ml of the overnight cultures of Rosetta cells containing pET28b-BE1 or pET28b-BE3 delta UGI was inoculated into 400 ml LB broth containing 100 μg/ml kanamycin and 50 mg/ml carbenicilin and cultured at 30° C. until the OD600 reached 0.5-0.6. The cells were cooled to 16° C. for 1 hour, supplemented with 0.5 mM IPTG (Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside), and cultured for 14-18 hours.

For protein purification, cells were harvested by centrifugation at 5,000×g for 10 min at 4° C. and lysed by sonication in 5 ml lysis buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄, 300 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, and 10 mM imidazole, pH 8.0) supplemented with lysozyme (Sigma) and a protease inhibitor (Roche complete, EDTA-free). The soluble lysate obtained after centrifugation of the cell lysis mixture at 13,000 rpm. for 30 min at 4° C. was incubated with Ni-NTA agarose resin (Qiagen) for 1 hour at 4° C. The cell lysate/Ni-NTA mixture was applied to a column and washed with a buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄, 300 mM NaCl, and 20 mM imidazole, pH 8.0). The BE3 protein was eluted with an elution buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄, 300 mM NaCl, and 250 mM imidazole, pH 8.0). The eluted protein was buffer exchanged with a storage buffer (20 mM HEPES-KOH (pH 7.5), 150 mM KCl, 1 mM DTT, and 20% glycerol) and concentrated with centrifugal filter units (Millipore) to give purified rAPOBEC1-XTEN-dCas9 protein and rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein.

3. Desamination and USER Treatment of PCR Amplification Products

PCR amplification products (10 μg) containing EMX1 site were incubated with purified rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein (4 μg) and EMX1-specific sgRNA (3 μg) at 100 μl reaction volume for 1 hour at 37° C. The cultures were then incubated for 30 min at 37° C. in a uracil-specific excitation reagent (6 units) (New England Biolabs; https://www.neb.com/products/m5505-user-enzyme; containing a mixture of Uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) and DNA glycosylase-lyase Endonuclease VIII, 50 mM KCl, 5 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 0.1 mM EDTA, 1 mM DTT, BSA 175 mg/ml, and 50% (w/v) glycerol) glycerol) and then subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis.

4. Deamination and USER Treatment of Genomic DNA

Genomic DNA was purified (extracted) from HEK293T cells with a DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Genomic DNA (10 μg) was incubated with the rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein (300 nM) purified in Reference Example 2 and an sgRNA (900 nM) in a reaction volume of 500 μL for 8 hours at 37° C. in a buffer (100 mM NaCl, 40 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, and 100 μg/ml BSA, pH 7.9). After removal of sgRNA using RNase A (50 μg/mL), uracil-containing genomic DNA was purified with a DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen). The on-target site was amplified by PCR using a SUN-PCR blend and subjected to Sanger sequencing to check BE3-mediated cytosine deamination and USER-mediated DNA cleavage.

5. Sequencing of Whole Genome and Digenome

Genomic DNA (1 μg) was fragmented to the 400- to 500-bp range using the Covaris system (Life Technologies) and blunt-ended using End Repair Mix (Thermo Fischer). Fragmented DNA was ligated with adapters to produce libraries, which were then subjected to WGS (whole genome sequencing) using HiSeq X Ten Sequencer (Illumina) at Macrogen.

6. Targeted Deep Sequencing

On-target and potential off-target sites were amplified with a KAPA HiFi HotStart PCR kit (KAPA Biosystems #KK2501) for deep sequencing library generation. Pooled PCR amplicons were sequenced using MiniSeq (Illumina) or Illumina Miseq (LAS Inc. Korea) with TruSeq HT Dual Index system (Illumina).

Example 1. Comparison of BE3-Associated Base Editing Efficiency and Cas9-Associated Indel Frequency in Human Cells

Base editing efficiencies, defined by single-nucleotide substitution frequencies, of three different forms of BEs, at seven genomic loci (EMX1, FANCF, HEK2, RNF2, HEK3, HEK4 and HBB) in HEK293T cells were determined, and compared with genome editing efficiencies, defined by indel frequencies at target sites, of Cas9 nucleases (FIG. 1a,b ). FIG. 1a shows the base editing efficiencies resulted from BE1 (APOBEC1-dCas9), BE2 (APOBEC-dCas9-UGI) and BE3 (APOBEC-nCas9-UGI) (Reference Example 1) in seven endogenous target sites (EMX1, FANCF, HEK2, RNF2, HEK3, HEK4, HBB) of HEK293T cells. The base editing efficiency was measured by targeted deep sequencing (Reference Example 6). The efficiency of BE3 [APOBEC-nCas9-UGI (uracil DNA glycosylase inhibitor), 29±6%] is superior to that of BE1 (APOBEC1-dCas9, 5±1%) and BE2 (APOBEC-dCas9-UGI, 8±2%). FIG. 1b shows the Cas9 nuclease-induced mutation frequencies measured by the target deep-sequnctation at 7 endogenous target sites in HEK293T cells (the results were obtained by using the Cas9 expression plasmid of Reference Example 1 (Addgene plasmid #43945; FIG. 19)). These results show that BE3 activity is independent of Cas9 nuclease activity. FIG. 1c is a graph representatively showing the ranking of indel frequency or base editing efficiency at the 7 endogenous on-target sites (see Table 2-8). As shown in FIG. 1c , several sgRNAs exhibit low activity when working together with Cas9, but highly activity when working together with BE3; while some sgRNAs show opposite correlation.

Example 2. Tolerance of BE3 and Cas9 to Mismatched sgRNAs

To assess specificities of BE3 deaminases, it was examined in a cell whether BE3 can tolerate mismatches in small guide RNAs (sgRNAs). To this end, plasmids encoding BE3 or Cas9 (Reference Example 1) and sgRNAs with one to four mismatches were co-transfected into HEK293T cells, to measure mutation frequencies at three endogenous sites (EMX1, HBB, RNF2).

The used target sites (including the PAM sequence (in bold)) of the sgRNA with 1 to 4 mismatches are summarized in Table 1 below:

TABLE 1 SEQ EMX1 SEQ SEQ RNF2 ID mismatched ID HBB mismatched ID mismatched NO: sgRNAs NO: sgRNAs NO: sgRNAs  1 GgactCGAGC 32 GccatCCCAC 63 GctgcCTTAG AGAAGAAGAA AGGGCAGTAA TCATTACCTG GGG CGG AGG  2 GAGTttagGC 33 GTTGttttAC 64 GTCActccAG AGAAGAAGAA AGGGCAGTAA TCATTACCTG GGG CGG AGG  3 GAGTCCGAat 34 GTTGCCCCgtgaG 65 GTCATCTTgactA gaAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG  4 GAGTCCGAGC 35 GTTGCCCCACAG 66 GTCATCTTAGTC AGggagAGAA aatgGTAACGG gccgCCTGAGG GGG  5 GAGTCCGAGC 36 GTTGCCCCACAG 67 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAgagg GGCAacggCGG ATTAttcaAGG GGG  6 GAactCGAGC 37 GTcatCCCACAGG 68 GTtgcCTTAGTCA AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG  7 GAGTCtagGC 38 GTTGCtttACAGGG 69 GTCATtccAGTCA AGAAGAAGAA CAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG  8 GAGTCCGAat 39 GTTGCCCCgtgGG 70 GTCATCTTgacC gGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG  9 GAGTCCGAGC 40 GTTGCCCCACAaa 71 GTCATCTTAGTtg AaggGAAGAA aCAGTAACGG cTACCTGAGG GGG 10 GAGTCCGAGC 41 GTTGCCCCACAG 72 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAaggGAA GGtgaTAACGG ATcgtCTGAGG GGG 11 GAGTCCGAGC 42 GTTGCCCCACAG 73 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAagg GGCAGcggCGG ATTACtcaAGG GGG 12 GAacCCGAGC 43 GTcaCCCCACAG 74 GTtgTCTTAGTCA AGAAGAAGAA GGCAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG 13 GAGTttGAGC 44 GTTGttCCACAGG 75 GTCActTTAGTCA AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG 14 GAGTCCagGC 45 GTTGCCttACAGG 76 GTCATCccAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 15 GAGTCCGAat 46 GTTGCCCCgtAGG 77 GTCATCTTgaTC AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 16 GAGTCCGAGC 47 GTTGCCCCACga 78 GTCATCTTAGctA gaAAGAAGAA GGCAGTAACGG TTACCTGAGG GGG 17 GAGTCCGAGC 48 GTTGCCCCACAG 79 GTCATCTTAGTC AGggGAAGAA aaCAGTAACGG gcTACCTGAGG GGG 18 GAGTCCGAGC 49 GTTGCCCCACAG 80 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAagAGAA GGtgGTAACGG ATcgCCTGAGG GGG 19 GAGTCCGAGC 50 GTTGCCCCACAG 81 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAgaAA GGCAacAACGG ATTAttTGAGG GGG 20 GAGTCCGAGC 51  GTTGCCCCACAG 82 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAGgg GGCAGTggCGG ATTACCcaAGG GGG 21 GgGTCCGAGC 52 GcTGCCCCACAG 83 GcCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GGCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 22 GAGcCCGAGC 53 GTTaCCCCACAG 84 GTCgTCTTAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GGCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 23 GAGTCtGAGC 54 GTTGCtCCACAGG 85 GTCATtTTAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 24 GAGTCCGgGC 55 GTTGCCCtACAGG 86 GTCATCTcAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 25 GAGTCCGAGt 56 GTTGCCCCAtAGG 87 GTCATCTTAaTC AGAAGAAGAA GCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 26 GAGTCCGAGC 57 GTTGCCCCAC 88 GTCATCTTAGTt AaAAGAAGAA AaGGCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG 27 GAGTCCGAGC 58 GTTGCCCCACAG 89 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAgGAAGAA GaCAGTAACGG AcTACCTGAGG GGG 28 GAGTCCGAGC 59 GTTGCCCCACAG 90 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGgAGAA GGCgGTAACGG ATTgCCTGAGG GGG 29 GAGTCCGAGC 60 GTTGCCCCACAG 91 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAaAA GGCAGcAACGG ATTACtTGAGG GGG 30 GAGTCCGAGC 61 GTTGCCCCACAG 92 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAGAg GGCAGTAgCGG ATTACCTaAGG GGG 31 GAGTCCGAGC 62 GTTGCCCCACAG 93 GTCATCTTAGTC AGAAGAAGAA GGCAGTAACGG ATTACCTGAGG GGG on tar- (on target (on target get se- sequence) sequence) quence)

(In Table 1, the base position in a lower-case letter refers to the mismatched site)

The results (Indel frequency and cytosine conversion frequency) obtained in the mismatched sequence and the on-target sequence listed in Table 1 are shown in FIGS. 2a to 2c (2 a: EMX1, 2b: HBB and 2 c: RNF2; Error bars indicate s.e.m. (n=3)). In FIGS. 2a to 2c , the bars indicated as ‘Cn’ show a mutation (substitution with other base or deletion) frequency of cytosine (C) at the n-th position from 5′ end of mismatched sequence or on-target sequence. The Indel frequency and the cytosine conversion frequency (base editing frequency) were measured using the target deep sequencing (Reference Example 6). The primers used for the target deep sequencing are as follows:

EMX1 1st PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 94) AGTGTTGAGGCCCCAGTG; Reverse(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 95) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTCAGCAGCAAGCAGCA CTCT; 2nd PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 96) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTGGGCCTCCTGAGTTTC TCAT; Reverse(5′→3′) (SEQ ID NO: 97) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTCAGCAGCAAGCAGCA CTCT; HBB 1st PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 98) GGCAGAGAGAGTCAGTGCCTA; Reverse(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 99) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTCAGGGCTGGGCATAA AAGT; 2nd PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 100) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTGTCTCCACATGCCCAG TTTC; Reverse(5′→3′) (SEQ ID NO: 101) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTCAGGGCTGGGCATAA AAGT; RNF2 1st PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 102) CCATAGCACTTCCCTTCCAA; Reverse(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 103) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTGCCAACATACAGAAG TCAGGAA; 2nd PCR Forward(5′→3′): (SEQ ID NO: 104) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTATTTCCAGCAATGTCT CAGG; Reverse(5′→3′) (SEQ ID NO: 105) GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCTGCCAACATACAGAAG TCAGGAA.

In addition, the Cas9 nuclease-associated indel frequency and BE3-associated base editing frequency in EMX1 site (FIG. 3a ), HBB site (FIG. 3b ), and RNF2 site (FIG. 3c ) were measured using mismatched sgRNAs (Table 1), and the obtained results are shown in FIGS. 3a to 3c . As shown in FIGS. 3a-3c , there is a statistically significant correlation (R2=0.70, 0.83, and 0.72 at three sites, respectively) between the Cas9-induced indel frequency and the BE3 induced substitution frequency.

BE3 deaminases and Cas9 nucleases tolerated one-nucleotide (nt) mismatches at almost every position and 2-nt mismatches in the protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM)-distal region but did not tolerate most of the 3-nt or 4-nt mismatches in either the PAM-proximal or distal regions. We noticed, however, that several sgRNAs (indicated by asterisks in FIG. 2) with two or three mismatches were highly active with BE3 but not with Cas9 or vice versa. For example, BE3 with the fully-matched sgRNA or with a 3-nt mismatched sgRNA induced substitutions at comparable frequencies (33% vs. 14%) at the EMX1 site, whereas Cas9 with the same matched and 3-nt mismatched sgRNAs showed widely different indel frequencies (50% vs. 2%) (FIG. 2a ). Conversely, BE3 with two 2-nt mismatched sgRNAs was poorly active (substitution frequencies <1%), whereas Cas9 with the same mismatched sgRNAs was highly active (indel frequencies >10%) (FIG. 2a ). These results indicate that the tolerance of Cas9 nucleases and BE3 deaminases for mismatched sgRNAs can differ and imply that BE3 and Cas9 could have separate sets of off-target sites in the genome, calling for a method to profile genome-wide specificities of RNA-programmable deaminases.

Example 3. Digenome-Seq for Identifying BE3 Off-Target Sites in Human Genome

Several different cell-based methods, which include GUIDE-seq (Tsai, S. Q. et al. GUIDE-seq enables genome-wide profiling of off-target cleavage by CRISPR-Cas nucleases. Nature biotechnology 33, 187-197 (2015)), HTGTS (Frock, R. L. et al. Genome-wide detection of DNA double-stranded breaks induced by engineered nucleases. Nature biotechnology (2014)), BLESS (Ran, F. A. et al. In vivo genome editing using Staphylococcus aureus Cas9. Nature 520, 186-191 (2015)), and IDLV capture (Wang, X. et al. Unbiased detection of

cleavage by CRISPR-Cas9 and TALENs using integrase-defective lentiviral vectors. Nature biotechnology 33, 175-178 (2015)), have been developed for identifying genome-wide off-target sites at which Cas9 nucleases induce DSBs. None of these methods, at least in their present forms, are suitable for assessing the genome-wide specificities of programmable deaminases, simply because deaminases do not yield DSBs. We reasoned that DSBs could be produced at deaminated, uracil-containing sites in vitro using appropriate enzymes and that these DNA cleavage sites could be identified via Digenome-seq (digested-genome sequencing; Kim, D., Kim, S., Kim, S., Park, J. & Kim, J. S. Genome-wide target-specificities of CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases revealed by multiplex Digenome-seq. Genome research 26, 406-415 (2016); Kim, D. et al. Genome-wide analysis reveals specificities of Cpf1 endonucleases in human cells. Nature biotechnology 34, 863-868 (2016); Kim, D. et al. Digenome-seq: genome-wide profiling of CRISPR-Cas9 off-target effects in human cells. Nature methods 12, 237-243, 231 p following 243 (2015)), an in vitro method used for assessing genome-wide specificities of Cas9 and Cpf1 nucleases.

To test this idea, a PCR amplicon containing a target sequence was incubated (1) with the recombinant rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein (Reference Example 2), a derivative of BE3 with no UGI domain, and its sgRNA in vitro to induce C-to-U conversions and a nick in the Watson and Crick strands, respectively, and then (2) with USER (Uracil-Specific Excision Reagent), a mixture of E. coli Uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) and DNA glycosylase-lyase Endonuclease VIII, to generate a gap at the location of the uracils, giving rise to a composite DSB (FIG. 4a ). Next it was investigated whether Digenome-seq could be used to assess genome-wide target-specificities of BE3 deaminases. Human genomic DNA, purified from HEK293T cells, was incubated with each of 7 different BE3 ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) (300 nM rAPOBEC1-nCas9 protein and 900 nM sgRNA each) for 7 hours three times, and then with USER for 3 hours (FIG. 4a ).

FIG. 4a shows an outline of the BE3 Digenome-seq, showing the BE3-mediated cleavage of uracil-containing site by USER, a mixture of E. coli Uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) and DNA glycosylase-lyase Endonuclease VIII. FIG. 4b is an electrophoresis image showing the PCR products cleaved by treating BE3 and/or USER. As shown in FIG. 4b , the PCR amplicon was cleaved, when incubated with both BE3 and USER.

C-to-U conversions induced by BE3 and uracil removal by USER were confirmed by Sanger sequencing (FIG. 4c ). FIG. 4c is a Sanger sequencing result showing C-to-U conversion by BE3 and DNA cleavage by USER. Each genomic DNA sample was subjected to whole genome sequencing (WGS) after end repair and adaptor ligation (FIG. 4a ).

After sequence alignment to the human reference genome (hg19), we used Integrative Genomics Viewer (IGV) to monitor alignment patterns at each on-target site, and the results are shown in FIGS. 4d and 5, respectively. After sequencing for the human reference genome (hg19), an alignment pattern at the target position was monitored using an Integrative Genomics Viewer (IGV) FIG. 4d is an IGV image showing straight alignment of the sequence read at on-target site of EMX1, and FIG. 5 is an IGV image showing straight alignment of sequence reads at 6 different on-target sites. As shown in FIGS. 4d and 5, uniform alignments of sequence reads, signature patterns associated with DSBs produced in vitro, were observed at all 7 on-target sites.

Example 4. Genome-Wide BE3 Off-Target Sites Revealed by Digenome-Seq

To identify BE3 off-target sites in the human genome, a DNA cleavage score was assigned, based on the number of sequence reads whose 5′ ends aligned at a given position, to each nt position across the genome and listed all the sites with scores over 2.5, a cutoff value that was used for finding off-target sites of Cas9 nucleases with the same set of 7 sgRNAs in the inventor's previous study (Kim, D., Kim, S., Kim, S., Park, J. & Kim, J. S. Genome-wide target-specificities of CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases revealed by multiplex Digenome-seq. Genome research 26, 406-415 (2016)) (FIG. 6a-d and Tables 2-8).

The DNA cleavage score at site i of each nucleotide (i.e., the nucleotide position on genomic DNA) was calculated by the following formula:

${\text{Score at the}\mspace{14mu} i\mspace{14mu} \text{site}} = {{\sum\limits_{a = 1}^{5}\; {\frac{C\left( {F_{i} - 1} \right)}{D_{i}} \times \frac{C\left( {R_{i - 4 + a} - 1} \right)}{D_{i - 4 + a}} \times \left( {F_{i} + R_{i - 4 + a} - 2} \right)}} + {\sum\limits_{a = 1}^{5}\; {\frac{C\left( {R_{i - 1} - 1} \right)}{D_{i - 1}} \times \frac{C\left( {F_{i - 3 + a} - 1} \right)}{D_{i - 3 + a}} \times \left( {R_{i - a} + F_{i - 3 + a} - 2} \right)}}}$

F_(j): Number of forward sequence reads starting at the i site R_(i): Number of reverse sequence reads starling at the i site D_(j): Sequencing depth at the i site C Arbitrary constant

In the above formula, the number of nucleotide sequence data means the number of nucleotide leads, the sequencing depth means the number of sequencing leads at a specific site, and the C value is 1.

Digenome-captured sites (cleavage site+PAM) and DNA cleavage score are shown in Tables 2 to 8 below:

TABLE 2 (On target: EMX1_4) EMX1 DNA DNA seq at SEQ cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge EMX1_1 chr15  44109763 30.53 GAGTCtaAGCAG 106 x AAGAAGAAGAG EMX1_2 chr11  62365273 26.44 GAaTCCaAGCAG 107 x AAGAAGAgAAG EMX1_3 chr5   9227162 23.66 aAGTCtGAGCAc 108 x AAGAAGAATGG EMX1_4 chr2  73160998 14.55 GAGTCCGAGCAG  31 x AAGAAGAAGGG EMX1_5 chr4 131662222 11.14 GAaTCCaAG-AG 109 RNA AAGAAGAATGG bulge EMX1_6 chr8 128801258  9.60 GAGTCCtAGCAG 110 x gAGAAGAAGAG EMX1_7 chr19  24250503  8.35 GAGTCCaAGCAG 111 x tAGAgGAAGGG EMX1_8 chr1   4515013  8.12 GtGTCCtAG-AG 112 RNA AAGAAGAAGGG bulge EMX1_9 chr1  23720618  5.96 aAGTCCGAGgAG 113 x AgGAAGAAAGG EMX1_10 chr2 219845072  5.47 GAGgCCGAGCAG 114 x AAGAAagACGG EMX1_11 chr8 102244551  4.70 agtTCCaAGCAG 115 x AAGAAGcATGG EMX1_12 chr3  45605387  3.11 GAGTCCacaCAG 116 x AAGAAGAAAGA EMX1_13 chr16  12321159  3.01 GAGTCCaAG-AG 117 RNA AAGAAGtgAGG bulge EMX1_14 chr9 111348573  1.56 GAGTCCttG-AG 118 RNA AAGAAGgAAGG bulge EMX1_15 chr3   5031614  1.50 GAaTCCaAGCAG 119 x gAGAAGAAGGA EMX1_16 chr14  31216733  1.34 GtacCaGAG-AG 120 RNA AAGAAGAgAGG bulge EMX1_17 chr14  48932119  1.16 GAGTCCcAGCAa 121 x AAGAAGAAAAG EMX1_18 chr11 107812992  1.04 aAGTCCaAGt-G 122 RNA AAGAAGAAAGG bulge EMX1_19 chr12 106646090  1.03 aAGTCCatGCAG 123 x AAGAgGAAGGG EMX1_20 chr2  71969823  0.80 GAGTCCtAG-AG 124 RNA AAGAAaAAGGG bulge EMX1_21 chr3 145057362  0.48 GAGTCCct-CAG 125 RNA gAGAAGAAAGG bulge EMX1_22 chr6   9118799  0.45 acGTCtGAGCAG 126 x AAGAAGAATGG EMX1_23 chr1  59750259  0.27 GAGTtCcAGaAG 127 x AAGAAGAAGAG EMX1_24 chr11  79484079  0.22 GAGTCCtAa-AG 128 RNA AAGAAGcAGGG bulge EMX1_25 chr9 135663403  0.21 cAGTCCaAaCAG 129 x AAGAgGAATGG

TABLE 3 (On target sequence: FANCF_2) FANCF DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge FANCF_1 chr10  73463135 13.34 tGAATCCCaTCT 130 x cCAGCACCAGG FANCF_2 chr11  22647338  7.04 GGAATCCCTTCT 131 x GCAGCACCTGG FANCF_3 chr10  43410030  6.53 GGAgTCCCTcCT 132 x aCAGCACCAGG FANCF_4 chr10  37953199  5.67 GGAgTCCCTcCT 133 x aCAGCACCAGG FANCF_5 chr11  47554037  5.13 GGAATCCCTTCT 134 x aCAGCAtCCTG FANCF_6 chr16  49671025  3.00 GGAgTCCCTcCT 135 x GCAGCACCTGA FANCF_7 chr18   8707528  1.26 GGAAcCCCgTCT 136 x GCAGCACCAGG FANCF_8 chr7  44076496  0.95 GtctcCCCTTCT 137 x GCAGCACCAGG FANCF_9 chr9 113162294  0.46 aaAATCCCTTCc 138 x GCAGCACCTAG FANCF_10 chr15  49119756  0.42 tGtATttCTTCT 139 x GCctCAggCTG FANCF_11 chr2  54853314  0.39 GGAATatCTTCT 140 x GCAGCcCCAGG FANCF_12 chr8  21374810  0.37 GagtgCCCTgaa 141 x GCctCAgCTGG FANCF_13 chrX  86355179  0.35 accATCCCTcCT 142 x GCAGCACCAGG FANCF_14 chr3  35113165  0.20 tGAATCCtaaCT 143 x GCAGCACCAGG FANCF_15 chr10   3151994  0.13 ctctgtCCTTCT 144 x GCAGCACCTGG

TABLE 4 (On target sequence: RNF2_1) RNF2 DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge RNF2_1 chr1 185056773 27.66 GTCATCTTAGTC 93 x ATTACCTGAGG

TABLE 5 (On target sequence: HBB_1) HBB DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge HBB_1 chr11   5248214 17.68 CTTGCCCCACAG 145 x GGCAGTAACGG HBB_2 chr17   8370252 13.64 tTgctCCCACAG 146 x GGCAGTAAACG HBB_3 chr12 124803834 10.88 gcTGCCCCACAG 147 x GGCAGcAAAGG HBB_4 chrX  75006256  2.34 gTgGCCCCACAG 148 x GGCAGgAATGG HBB_5 chr12  93549201  0.55 aTTGCCCCACgG 149 x GGCAGTgACGG HBB_6 chr10  95791920  0.27 acTctCCCACAa 150 x GGCAGTAAGGG HBB_7 chr9 104595883  0.18 tcaGCCCCACAG 151 x GGCAGTAAGGG

TABLE 6 (On target sequence: HEK2_2) HEK2 DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge HEK2_1 chr4 90522183 18.27 GAACACAAtGCA 152 x TAGAtTGCCGG HEK2_2 chr5 87240613  7.54 GAACACAAAGCA 153 x TAGACTGCGGG HEK2_3 chr2 19844956  0.93 aActcCAAAGCA 154 x TAtACTGCTGG

TABLE 7 (On target sequence: HEK3_2) HEK3 DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge HEK3_1 chr1  47005705 29.27 aGCtCAGACTGA 155 x GCAaGTGAGGG HEK3_2 chr9 110184636 11.38 GGCCCAGACTGA 156 x GCACGTGATGG HEK3_3 chr19    882560 10.90 GGCCCAGA--GA 157 RNA GCACGTGtGGG bulge HEK3_4 chr15  79749930  3.03 caCCCAGACTGA 158 x GCACGTGcTGG HEK3_5 chr17  34954539  2.10 GGCCCa-ACTGA 159 RNA GCAaGTGATGG bulge HEK3_6 chrX 114764149  1.66 aGaCCAGACTGA 160 x GCAaGaGAGGG HEK3_7 chr6  73097166  0.15 GGCCactcaTGg 161 x cCACaTacTGG

TABLE 8 (On target sequence: HEK4_1) HEK4 DNA DNA seq at SEQ Cleavage a cleavage ID ID Chr Position Score sites NO Bulge HEK4_1 chr20  31349772 19.26 GGCACTGCGGCT 162 x GGAGGTGGGGG HEK4_2 chr6 160517881 15.45 GGCACTGCtGCT 163 x GGgGGTGGTGG HEK4_3 chr6 168787137 15.37 GGCACTGCa-CT 164 RNA GGAGGTtGTGG bulge HEK4_4 chr19  33382081 13.83 GGCtCTGCGGCT 165 x GGAGGgGGTGG HEK4_5 chr20  60080553 12.71 aGCACTGCaGaT 166 x GGAGGaGGCGG HEK4_6 chr5 141232853 10.87 GGCACTGCGGCa 167 x GGgaGgaGGGG HEK4_7 chr20  60010562 10.51 tGCACTGCGGCc 168 x GGAGGaGGTGG HEK4_8 chr13  70136736  8.76 GGCACT-gGGCT 169 RNA GaAGGTaGAGG bulge HEK4_9 chr20   1151854  8.41 GGCACTGtGGCT 170 x GcAGGTGGAGG HEK4_10 chr15  71686928  7.70 tGCtCTGCGGCa 171 x GGAGGaGGAGG HEK4_11 chr7   1397398  6.71 aGCACTGCaGCT 172 x GGgaGTGGAGG HEK4_12 chr20  45343010  6.57 GGCACTGaGGgT 173 x GGAGGTGGGGG HEK4_13 chr8  20854500  5.57 GGCACTGgGGCT 174 x GGAGacGGGGG HEK4_14 chr7  54561437  5.40 aGgACTGCGGCT 175 x GGgGGTGGTGG HEK4_15 chr15  60790561  5.29 GGCACTGCaaCT 176 x GGAaGTGaTGG HEK4_16 chr13  27629410  4.40 GGCACTGgGGtT 177 x GGAGGTGGGGG HEK4_17 chr7 110143150  3.69 GcCACTGCaGCT 178 x aGAGGTGGAGG HEK4_18 chr7 139244406  3.59 GcCACTGCGaCT 179 x GGAGGaGGGGG HEK4_19 chr19   2474643  3.56 GGCACTG-GGCT 180 RNA GGAGGcGGGGG bulge HEK4_20 chr2   6961255  3.17 aGCtCTGCGGCa 181 x GGAGtTGGAGG HEK4_21 chr17  75429280  2.90 GaCACcaCGGCT 182 x GGAGaTGGTGG HEK4_22 chr7  17979717  2.66 GcactgGCaGCc 183 DNA GGAGGTGGTGG bulge HEK4_23 chr9   5020590  2.64 tGCACTGCaGCT 184 x GcAGGTGGAGG HEK4_24 chrX 122479548  2.52 GGCACTG-GGCT 185 RNA GGAGaTGGAGG bulge HEK4_25 chr12 104739608  2.48 ccttCTGCGGCT 186 x GGAaGTGGTGG HEK4_26 chr17  40693638  2.38 GcactgcaGGCa 187 DNA GGAGGTGaGTG bulge HEK4_27 chr8 144781301  2.38 GaCACTGCaGCT 188 x GGAGGTGGGGT HEK4_28 chr9  74103955  2.36 GGCACTGCaGCa 189 x GGgGaTGGGGG HEK4_29 chr18  37194558  2.31 GGCACTGCGGgT 190 x GGAGGcGGGGG HEK4_30 chr20  60895671  2.12 GGCACaGCaGCT 191 x GGAGGTGcTGG HEK4_31 chr12 113935460  1.63 GGCcCTGCGGCT 192 x GGAGaTatGGG HEK4_32 chrX  70597642  1.57 GaCACTGC-tCT 193 RNA GGAGGTGGTGG bulge HEK4_33 chr15  41044242  1.31 GGCgGGAGCTGC 194 x GGCgGTGGAGG HEK4_34 chr17    176302  1.18 tGCACTGtGGCT 195 x GGAGaTGGGGG HEK4_35 chr10  77103119  1.15 GGCAtcaCGGCT 196 x GGAGGTGGAGG HEK4_36 chr7 134872032  0.93 aGCACTGtGGCT 197 x GGgGGaGGCGG HEK4_37 chr9 133039175  0.86 GtCACTGCaGCT 198 x GGAGGaGGGGG HEK4_38 chr10  73435248  0.79 GtaACTGCGGCT 199 x GGcGGTGGTGG HEK4_39 chr14  21993455  0.78 GGtACaGCGGCT 200 x GGgGGaGGCGG HEK4_40 chr17  29815563  0.59 GGCgCTGCGGCc 201 x GGAGGTGGGGC HEK4_41 chr16  50300346  0.56 aGCACTGtGGCT 202 x GGgGGaGGGGG HEK4_42 chr11  78127584  0.53 tGCACTGCaGCT 203 x GGAGGcaaCGG HEK4_43 chr19   1295086  0.52 GaCACTGaGGCa 204 x GGAGGTGGGGG HEK4_44 chr2 162283033  0.51 GGCAtctgGGTG 205 x GCTGGgaGGGG HEK4_45 chr20  24376056  0.47 GGCACTGaGaCc 206 x aGAGGTGGTGG HEK4_46 chr16   1029977  0.42 GGCACTGCaGac 207 x GGAGGTGtGGG HEK4_47 chr19  47503406  0.39 GGCACTG-GGCT 208 RNA GGAGGgGaGAG bulge HEK4_48 chr2 231467380  0.39 GGCACTGCaGCT 209 x GGgGGTtGGTG HEK4_49 chr10  13692636  0.38 GGCACTGgGGCT 210 x GGgGGaGGGGG HEK4_50 chr1  32471659  0.34 GGCACTtCaGCT 211 x GGAGGcaGAGG HEK4_51 chr17   8634933  0.33 GGCACat-GGaT 212 RNA GGAGGTGGAGG bulge HEK4_52 chr6  83388605  0.30 aGCACTGtGG-T 213 RNA GGAGGTGGAGG bulge HEK4_53 chr10  27700491  0.29 GGCACTG-GGtT 214 RNA GGgGGTGGTGG bulge HEK4_54 chr1 143662284  0.27 GGCACat-GGCT 215 RNA GGgGGTGGTGG bulge HEK4_55 chr16  49777696  0.22 tGCACTGCGaCT 216 x GGAGGgaGAGG HEK4_56 chr19  38616186  0.19 GGCACTGaGaCT 217 x GGgGGTGGGGG HEK4_57 chr10 126752487  0.18 GGCACTGCaGCc 218 x tGgGGgtGGGG HEK4_58 chr16  28266968  0.17 GGCtCTtCGGCT 219 x GGAGGTaGCGG HEK4_59 chr2 149886210  0.15 GaCACTG-GGCT 220 RNA GGAGGTtGCGG bulge HEK4_60 chr20  37471343  0.15 aGCACTGtGcCT 221 x GGgGGTGGGGG HEK4_61 chr12  53453556  0.13 tGgACTGCGGCT 222 x GGAGagGGAGG HEK4_62 chr15  30501337  0.13 GGCACTG-GGCT 223 RNA GGAtGTGGTGG bulge HEK4_63 chr5 139284047  0.12 GGCACTGaGGCT 224 x GcAGGcGGCGG HEK4_64 chr8 119227145  0.12 GGCACaatGGCT 225 x GGAGGTGaAGG HEK4_65 chr14  95761249  0.11 GGCACTctGGCT 226 x GGAGcTGGGGG HEK4_66 chr3  23651529  0.11 GGCACaGCaGgT 227 x GGAGGTGGAGG HEK4_67 chr12   9287415  0.10 GGCtCTGCaGCc 228 x aGgGGTGGAGG

(In Tables 2 to 8, the bases in lower case letters represent mismatched bases)

FIGS. 6a and 6b are genome-wide circus plots representing DNA cleavage scores obtained with intact genomic DNA (gray: first layer from the center) and genomic DNA digested with BE3 and USER (blue: second layer from the center) or with Cas9 (red; third layer from the center, only present in FIG. 6b ), where the arrow indicates on-target site. FIGS. 6c and 6d show sequence logos obtained via WebLogo using DNA sequences at Digenome-capture sites (Tables 2-8) (DNA cleavage score >2.5). FIGS. 6e and 6f represent scatterplots of BE3-mediated substitution frequencies vs Cas9-mediated indel frequencies determined using targeted deep sequencing, wherein circled dots indicate off-target sites validated by BE3 but invalidated by Cas9. FIGS. 6g and 6h show BE3 off-target sites validated in HEK293T cells by targeted deep sequencing, wherein PAM sequences are the last 3 nucleotides at 3′ end, mismatched bases are shown in small letters, and dashes (-) indicate RNA bulges (Error bars indicate s.e.m. (n=3)).

The primers used in the deep sequencing are summarized in Tables 9 to 15 below:

TABLE 9 EMX1 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) EMX1_1 GCCTTTTTCCG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GACACATAA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAT CTCTTCCGATCT GCCTCATTATCA CTCACCTGGGC GCCTCATTATCA TCAGTGTTGG GAGAAAG TCAGTGTTGG EMX1_2 ACACTCTTTCCC GTCTCTGTGAAT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GGCGTCAC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTGT CTTCCGATCTGT CTCTTCCGATCT CCCAGACCTTC CCCAGACCTTC CACTGTCTGCA ATCTCCA ATCTCCA GGGCTCTCT EMX1_3 ACACTCTTTCCC TCAAATTGTTTA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT ATAGCTCTGTTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTT TT CTTCCGATCTTT CTCTTCCGATCT GGTCCCACAGG GGTCCCACAGG TTTTTGGTCAAT TGAATAAC TGAATAAC ATCTGAAAGGTT EMX1_4 AGTGTTGAGGC GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT (on CCCAGTG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG target) CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTG CTCTTCCGATCT CAGCAGCAAGC GGCCTCCTGAG CAGCAGCAAGC AGCACTCT TTTCTCAT AGCACTCT EMX1_5 ACACTCTTTCCC AAAAGATGTGG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT TATATACATACG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTCT ATGG CTTCCGATCTCT CTCTTCCGATCT GAAAATTTATGA GAAAATTTATGA CAAACAAAGAA CAATTTACTACC CAATTTACTACC GGAAAGTCCTC A A A EMX1_6 ACACTCTTTCCC TGTCTCATTGGC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT TTTTTCTTTTC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTG CTTCCGATCTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTGCCTGTGT CTTGCCTGTGT GCCCAGCTGTG GACTTGAC GACTTGAC CATTCTATC EMX1_7 ACACTCTTTCCC CCCAGCTACAC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GTCACAATG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT AGCCCTATGAA AGCCCTATGAA TAGGGTCCAGG AAGATTGC AAGATTGC CAAGAGAAA EMX1_8 ACACTCTTTCCC TCTGTCTGGCA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GATGATACCC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTAC CTTCCGATCTAC CTCTTCCGATCT ATTGCTACCCCT ATTGCTACCCCT ATCTGCTTCCTC TGGTGA TGGTGA GTGGTCAT EMX1_9 ACACTCTTTCCC GATCTGATCTTA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT CCCCAGAAGC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTC CTTCCGATCTC CTCTTCCGATCT GGTTCCGGTAC GGTTCCGGTAC CTGCTACTTGG TTCATGTC TTCATGTC CTGACCACA EMX1_10 CTCCTCCGACC GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT AGCAGAG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAA CTCTTCCGATCT TCCCTCAGCCA GGAGGTGCAGG TCCCTCAGCCA CTTTATTTCA AGCTAGA CTTTATTTCA EMX1_11 GGTGCTGTGGG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GGCATAG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTCC CTCTTCCGATCT ACAGGCGAACA TTGATTTGGAG ACAGGCGAACA GAACAGACA GGGTCTT GAACAGACA EMX1_12 CCCTTTCTTAAT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT AAATTACCCAGT TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG TTC CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT AAAAAGATAGG GACTAAAACACT AAAAAGATAGG CAAACATAGGA GCCCAAG CAAACATAGGA AAA AAA EMX1_13 GCTTTTCTGGG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GACATAGCA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAC CTCTTCCGATCT AAGAATTCCAG TTCCCTTGTCAT AAGAATTCCAG GCAGTTAACCA CCCACA GCAGTTAACCA EMX1_14 CACAGGAATGT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT CTTGGGTCA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTCT CTCTTCCGATCT CTCTTCAATCCA TAGCCTGGGTC CTCTTCAATCCA TCGCCAGT ATGCACT TCGCCAGT EMX1_15 ACACTCTTTCCC GCACTTGTTGG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT CCATTTGTA TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT AGGAGGCAAAA AGGAGGCAAAA TTTTGAATATGT GGGAATA GGGAATA TTTAAATTCTCC ACA EMX1_16 ACACTCTTTCCC GCACAGAGGGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT TGTTTGCTT TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTAA CTTCCGATCTAA CTCTTCCGATCT GGCTAGCCCAG GGCTAGCCCAG TTCATCCTTTTG AGTCTCC AGTCTCC TGGGGTTC EMX1_17 GGAATCAATCAA GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TGAAGTTGAAG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG A CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTG CTCTTCCGATCT TTTGCAATTTGC CAATCTGAAGAA TTTGCAATTTGC TTAGTTATTGAA CAAAGAGCA TTAGTTATTGAA EMX1_18 ACACTCTTTCCC TCAAGAGACTG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT TTGTTTTAGATT TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTG GTC CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT ACATTTGATAGA ACATTTGATAGA CCCAGTCCAAT ACAGATGGGTA ACAGATGGGTA GGCTGTAGT EMX1_19 CCCTGCAAATT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GAGTACGTG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT GTCCCGAAGTG GGGGCCATTCT GTCCCGAAGTG CTGGAATTA TTATAGTT CTGGAATTA EMX1_20 GACAGTCCTGG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GCTAGGTGA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTGA CTCTTCCGATCT CTCTGGACTCA GAGTCAGGAGT CTCTGGACTCA GCTCCCATC GCCCAGT GCTCCCATC EMX1_21 ACACTCTTTCCC AGATGAATGCA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GGGAGCTGT TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTCC CACCATTG CTTCCGATCTCC CTCTTCCGATCT TCTCATTTCTAC TCTCATTTCTAC TTCTGAATTAAA CACCATTG AATGGAAAGAA CTG EMX1_22 ACAATTTCAGTA GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GTAGCATTAAG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG GAAT CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTGA CTCTTCCGATCT TTGTGACAAACT ATGCCAGTTCT TTGTGACAAACT GCCCTCTG GGGTTGT GCCCTCTG EMX1_23 ACACTCTTTCCC CAAAAATCAACT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT CAAGATGGATTA TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTAA AA CTTCCGATCTAA CTCTTCCGATCT TTTCTGAACCCA TTTCTGAACCCA GAGAACCTAGG AAGACAGG AAGACAGG GAAAACTCTTCTG EMX1_24 ACACTCTTTCCC CTTGTGGATCAT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GGGTACTGAG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTCC CTTCCGATCTCC CTCTTCCGATCT AAGCTATTTAAC AAGCTATTTAAC TGGGCCTTGGT TGGTATGCAC TGGTATGCAC ATTAGAGCA EMX1_25 ACACTCTTTCCC TGCTTTTTCACT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT TGTCTAGTTTTC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTC TT CTTCCGATCTTC CTCTTCCGATCT AAGGGGGTATA AAGGGGGTATA AACAATTTCCCA TAAAAGGAAGA TAAAAGGAAGA CAAAGTCCA

TABLE 10 FANCF 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) FANCF_1 CTGAAGGTGCT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GGTTTAGGG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT TGTCTGATTGAG ACATCCAGGGT TGTCTGATTGAG TCCCCACA TTCAAGTC TCCCCACA FANCF_2 ACACTCTTTCCC TGACATGCATTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT (on TACACGACGCT CGACCAAT TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG target) CTTCCGATCTAT CTTCCGATCTAT CTCTTCCGATCT GGATGTGGCGC GGATGTGGCGC AGCATTGCAGA AGGTAG AGGTAG GAGGCGTAT FANCF_3 CCTCAGGGATG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GATGAAGTG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTCC CTCTTCCGATCT TCCCAGTGAGA CTTACCAGATG TCCCAGTGAGA CCAGTTTGA GAGGACA CCAGTTTGA FANCF_4 CCCTTACCAGAT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GGAGGACA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTGT CTCTTCCGATCT ACCTTGAGTTTT GACCCAGGTCC ACCTTGAGTTTT GCCCAGTG AGTGTTT GCCCAGTG FANCF_5 AGCTTTAAAATG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GGGAATCCA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTCT CTCTTCCGATCT TTCCCAGCACT CCAGTACAGGG TTCCCAGCACT GTTCTGTTG GCTTTTG GTTCTGTTG FANCF_6 ACACAGGGTGC GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT AGTGGTACA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAG CTCTTCCGATCT TGGGGAGTATC GTGCTTCTGCA TGGGGAGTATC CTTGCAATC GGTCATC CTTGCAATC FANCF_7 ACGCCAGCACT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TTCTAAGGA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTG CTCTTCCGATCT CACAGATTGAT CCTGCTGCACT CACAGATTGAT GCCACTGGA CTCTGAGTA GCCACTGGA FANCF_8 ACACTCTTTCCC ACACCTCCGAG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GCCTTCT TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTT CTTCCGATCTTT CTCTTCCGATCT TCCTCAACCTTT TCCTCAACCTTT CAGGTCCTCCT TCTGCTG TCTGCTG CTCCCAGTT FANCF_9 ACACTCTTTCCC GCCAGGATTTC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT CTCAAACAA TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTCC CTTCCGATCTCC CTCTTCCGATCT TGAATAACTAAA TGAATAACTAAA GCCAAGTTCCC TGACAACATGG TGACAACATGG ATAAGCAAA FANCF_10 GCTCTCAAATG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GCTCCAAAC TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTC CTCTTCCGATCT CAGAGTGGCCT CTCCATCTCATT CAGAGTGGCCT GCTTACAATC CCCATC GCTTACAATC FANCF_11 GCCGAGAATTA GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT CCACGACAT TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTC CTCTTCCGATCT GGCACACAGCT ACAGCGAGGAA GGCACACAGCT GTACGTAGG GGACAAT GTACGTAGG FANCF_12 ACACTCTTTCCC CTCCTCAGTGG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GTGAAGTCC TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTG CTTCCGATCTG CTCTTCCGATCT GAGCTCTCAGT GAGCTCTCAGT ACGGAGAGGTC TGGACTGG TGGACTGG ACATGAAGG FANCF_13 TGAAAAGCAGT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT CTAGGACACAA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG A CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT CAACTCTGCCAT GCAGGCTAGGT CAACTCTGCCAT GTGCCTTA TTAGAGC GTGCCTTA FANCF_14 CACATATGAAAT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT ATTAAATTTGAA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CCA CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT GGGAATATAGA AACCATGTTACC GGGAATATAGA AAAATCAAGAGA TTTTGACC AAAATCAAGAGA TGG TGG FANCF_15 CGTCTTCGCTCT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TTGGTTTT TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT CACCCTGTAGA TGGCACATAGT CACCCTGTAGA TCTCTCTCACG CGTAACCTC TCTCTCTCACG

TABLE 11 RNF2 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) RNF2_1 CCATAGCACTTC GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT (on CCTTCCAA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT target) CTTCCGATCTGC TTCCGATCTATTT CTTCCGATCTGC CAACATACAGAA CCAGCAATGTCT CAACATACAGAA GTCAGGAA CAGG GTCAGGAA

TABLE 12 HBB 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) HBB_1 GGCAGAGAGAG GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT (on TCAGTGCCTA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT target) CTTCCGATCTCA TTCCGATCTGTC CTTCCGATCTCA GGGCTGGGCAT TCCACATGCCCA GGGCTGGGCAT AAAAGT GTTTC AAAAGT HBB_2 ACACTCTTTCCC GTGGGTGTCCTG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC GGTTGTT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTCCT TTCCGATCTCCT CTTCCGATCTCA ACAGCCTGCGA ACAGCCTGCGA CCTGGAGGCTA GGAATA GGAATA GGCACT HBB_3 CCCACACAGGTT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TTCTCCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTCT TTCCGATCTCTT CTTCCGATCTCT AGGCCTTCACCT CCCTAGACCTGC AGGCCTTCACCT GGAACC CTCCT GGAACC HBB_4 ACACTCTTTCCC CAGAAAATAAAG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC CAGCTGACTCAC TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTTTG TTCCGATCTTTG CTTCCGATCTCC TGTAACAGCCAC TGTAACAGCCAC TGGCAAAAGTGT TCACCA TCACCA TTGGAT HBB_5 TTTGCATTCCTTT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TAGCTTCTTTT CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTAG TTCCGATCTATG CTTCCGATCTAG CTACCACGGTGA GCTGTTATTCAG CTACCACGGTGA CAGTAACA GGAAA CAGTAACA HBB_6 ACACTCTTTCCC AAATGGTAAAAA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC GAAACTCAAATG TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTTCC C TTCCGATCTTCC CTTCCGATCTGG ACTTTGTTAGTC ACTTTGTTAGTC ATACCACTGGGC AGGAGATTC AGGAGATTC TTCTGA HBB_7 TTCAAATCTGGA GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT AAATAATCTATCA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CC CTTCCGATCTAT TTCCGATCTTTT CTTCCGATCTAT TTCCAGGCTATG CATACCCTTTCC TTCCAGGCTATG CTTCCA CGTTC CTTCCA

TABLE 13 EK2 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) HEK2_1 ACACTCTTTCCC TTTTCTTGTGAA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC ACAGAAATGTCA TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTCGT TTCCGATCTCGT CTTCCGATCTAA ACTATGCAAGCC ACTATGCAAGCC TGCTCCCACACC ACATTG ACATTG ATTTTT HEK2_2 ACACTCTTTCCC TTCCCAAGTGAG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT (on TACACGACGCTC AAGCCAGT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT target) TTCCGATCTAGG TTCCGATCTAGG CTTCCGATCTAA ACGTCTGCCCAA ACGTCTGCCCAA AATTGTCCAGCC TATGT TATGT CCATCT HEK2_3 ATTTACAAAACTT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT AGGAGAATCAAA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT GG CTTCCGATCTCA TTCCGATCTTCA CTTCCGATCTCA GCTGCTGTTATC AAGGAAAAGCAA GCTGCTGTTATC CTTCCTC CGTGA CTTCCTC

TABLE 14 HEK3 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) HEK3_1 GCAGTTGCTTG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT ACTAGAGGTAG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG C CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTC CTCTTCCGATCT AGTGATGTGGG CAGATTCCTGGT AGTGATGTGGG AGGTTCCTG CCAAAG AGGTTCCTG HEK3_2 AAGGCATGGAT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT (on GAGAGAAGC TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG target) CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAA CTCTTCCGATCT CTCCCTAGGTG ACGCCCATGCA CTCCCTAGGTG CTGGCTTC ATTAGTC CTGGCTTC HEK3_3 CTCAGGAGGCT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GAGGTAGGA TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAG CTCTTCCGATCT ACGTGTCTGCG GAAGATGAGGC ACGTGTCTGCG GTTAGCAG TGCAGTG GTTAGCAG HEK3_4 TTATGCGGCAAA GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT ACAAAATG TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTGA CTCTTCCGATCT TCGTCGCTGAC TCTCATCCCCTG TCGTCGCTGAC AATTTCTGA TTGACC AATTTCTGA HEK3_5 TGTTATCAACTG GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT GGGGTTGC TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTAG CTCTTCCGATCT TCCTTCATGGAC AGGGGCATCTC TCCTTCATGGAC TGGTAGGC GTGTAGA TGGTAGGC HEK3_6 ACACTCTTTCCC AAGCTATGATGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT TACACGACGCT GATGTGACTGG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTTCCGATCTTG CTCTTCCGATCT TGTGCATGGTTC TGTGCATGGTTC CATGGTGTCTCA ATCTCC ATCTCC CCCCTGTA HEK3_7 GCCATGATCCT GTGACTGGAGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGT CGTGATTTT TCAGACGTGTG TACACGACGCT TCAGACGTGTG CTCTTCCGATCT CTTCCGATCTTC CTCTTCCGATCT ACTTACCGAAG TCATGCTGTCTT ACTTACCGAAG GCAGGGACT GGATAAACA GCAGGGACT

TABLE 15 HEK4 1st PCR 2nd PCR ID Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) Forward (5′to3′) Reverse (5′to3′) HEK4_1 ACACTCTTTCCC GACGTCCAAAAC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT (on TACACGACGCTC CAGACTCC TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT target) TTCCGATCTCTC TTCCGATCTCTC CTTCCGATCTAC CCTTCAAGATGG CCTTCAAGATGG TCCTTCTGGGGC CTGAC CTGAC CTTTT HEK4_2 TCCCCAATGTTT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TCTTGTGA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTGA TTCCGATCTTAG CTTCCGATCTGA TTACACAGAGGA AAGCGGACCCC TTACACAGAGGA GGCACCA ACATAG GGCACCA HEK4_3 TGAGAGAACATG GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT GTGCTTTG CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTAG TTCCGATCTGAA CTTCCGATCTAG GCTGTGGTAGG TGTGGACAGCAT GCTGTGGTAGG GACTCAC TGCAT GACTCAC HEK4_4 ACACTCTTTCCC AACCAACATGGT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC GGGACACT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTCCA TTCCGATCTCCA CTTCCGATCTAG GAAGAGTGTGGT GAAGAGTGTGGT GCTGTGGTGAAG GCAGT GCAGT AGGATG HEK4_5 GGAGTTAGGCGT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT AGCTTCAGG CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTCC TTCCGATCTAAT CTTCCGATCTCC TGGCACAGACCT CCAATCAATGGG TGGCACAGACCT TCCTAA AGCAT TCCTAA HEK4_6 ACACTCTTTCCC GCTGGTCATGCA ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC GTGTCTGT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTAAA TTCCGATCTAAA CTTCCGATCTCC GCCCAGCTCTGC GCCCAGCTCTGC CCATTTCTGCCT TGATA TGATA GATTT HEK4_7 ACACTCTTTCCC TGGGCTCAACCC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC AGGTGT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTGGG TTCCGATCTGGG CTTCCGATCTCC CATGGCTTCTGA CATGGCTTCTGA GGATGATTCTCC GACT GACT TACTTCC HEK4_8 ACACTCTTTCCC AGTTGTGGGGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC TTCTGCTG TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTGCC TTCCGATCTGCC CTTCCGATCTAT AACTAGAGGCAG AACTAGAGGCAG TCTGGAGGCAAC ACAGG ACAGG TCCTCA HEK4_9 GGCAAAACCCAT GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TCCAGAAG CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTTG TTCCGATCTACC CTTCCGATCTTG TTAGGAGCTCCC ACGTCAGGACTT TTAGGAGCTCCC CATCAC GTGTG CATCAC HEK4_10 ATGTTAGCCGGG GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT ATGGTCTA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTTC TTCCGATCTGAT CTTCCGATCTTC CAGGGTATCAGG CTCTTGACTTGG CAGGGTATCAGG AAAGGTT TGATCCA AAAGGTT HEK4_11 ACACTCTTTCCC CACAGCCCATCT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC CTCCACTC TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTAAA TTCCGATCTAAA CTTCCGATCTTG TCCTCAGCACAC TCCTCAGCACAC GGCTCCAACCTC GACAA GACAA TTCTAA HEK4_12 CCCTGGTGAGCA GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT AACACAC CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTCA TTCCGATCTCCC CTTCCGATCTCA GGTCCTGTGCCA ACGTGGTATTCA GGTCCTGTGCCA CCTC CCTCT CCTC HEK4_13 GCCATCTAATCA GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT CAGCCACA CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTGC TTCCGATCTCTC CTTCCGATCTGC ATCTTGTCCCTT CTGGGTGCTCAG ATCTTGTCCCTT CTCAGC ACTTC CTCAGC HEK4_14 ACACTCTTTCCC CACCATGCCTGG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC CTAATTTT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTGTT TTCCGATCTGTT CTTCCGATCTTT GAGAAGCAGCAA GAGAAGCAGCAA AGTAGGGACGG GGTGA GGTGA GGTTTCA HEK4_15 CAGAACCCAAGG GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT CTCTTGAC CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTAT TTCCGATCTTCC CTTCCGATCTAT TTTGCTCAGACC AAGATGCCTTCT TTTGCTCAGACC CAGCAT GCTCT CAGCAT HEK4_16 ACACTCTTTCCC TTTCTCACGATG ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC ACATTTTGG TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTAAC TTCCGATCTAAC CTTCCGATCTCG AGAGCCCTGCA AGAGCCCTGCA GAGGAGGTAGAT GAACAT GAACAT TGGAGA HEK4_17 ACACTCTTTCCC TGTTCCTAGAGC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC AACCTTCACA TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTCAT TTCCGATCTCAT CTTCCGATCTGG GTATGCAGCTGC GTATGCAGCTGC AGAGCCAGAGT TTTTGA TTTTGA GGCTAAA HEK4_18 CTGAAAGAGGGA GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT GGGGAGAC CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTCT TTCCGATCTCTC CTTCCGATCTCT TCGCCAGGTCTT GGGAGAGAGGA TCGCCAGGTCTT CTGTTC AAGGAC CTGTTC HEK4_19 ACACTCTTTCCC GACGCATCCCAC ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT TACACGACGCTC CTCCTC TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT TTCCGATCTCCC TTCCGATCTCCC CTTCCGATCTCT GGCCGATTTAAC GGCCGATTTAAC GGGGCACGAAA TTTTA TTTTA TGTCC HEK4_20 CCAGGAACAGA GTGACTGGAGTT ACACTCTTTCCC GTGACTGGAGTT GGGACCAT CAGACGTGTGCT TACACGACGCTC CAGACGTGTGCT CTTCCGATCTCC TTCCGATCTCCA CTTCCGATCTCC TGGTTCCAGTCA GGTCCAGAGACA TGGTTCCAGTCA CCTCTC AGACG CCTCTC

FIG. 7 is a Venn diagram showing the number of sites with DNA cleavage scores 2.5 or higher identified by Digenome-seq of Cas9 nuclease- and Base editor-treated genomic DNA.

As can be seen from the above results, seven BE3 deaminases plus USER cleaved human genomic DNA in vitro at just 1-24 (8±3) sites, far fewer than did Cas9 nucleases with the same set of sgRNAs (70±30 sites) in a multiplex Digenome-seq analysis (Kim, D., Kim, S., Kim, S., Park, J. & Kim, J. S. Genome-wide target-specificities of CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases revealed by multiplex Digenome-seq. Genome research 26, 406-415 (2016)) (FIG. 7). This means that BE3 has far fewer potential, not necessarily genuine, off-target sites than does Cas9. Sequence logos, obtained by comparing Digenome-identified sites, showed that both the PAM-distal and PAM-proximal regions contributed to the specificities of BE3 deaminases (FIG. 6c, d ).

The inventors further improved the computer program (termed Digenome 2.0) to identify potential off-target sites more comprehensively. The inventors counted the number of positions whose DNA cleavage scores were over a cutoff value that ranged from 0.0001 to 10 and the number of PAM (5′-NGN-3′ or 5′-NNG-3′)-containing sites with 10 or fewer mismatches, compared to the on-target site, among the positions with scores over the cutoff value (FIG. 8). FIG. 8 is a graph showing the number of total sites (▪) and the number of PAM-containing sites with ten or fewer mismatches (□) for a range of DNA cleavage scores. Such result was obtained by performing whole genome sequencing (WGS) for intact human genomic DNA (left) and human genomic DNA (right) cleaved by BE3 and USER. Cutoff score of 0.1 was selected, because WGS data obtained using intact genomic DNA, which had not been treated with BE3 and USER and thus served as a negative control, did not yield any false-positive sites with this cutoff score 0.1 (FIG. 8). Based on these results, in determining off-target sites by Digenome 2.0, sites with DNA cleavage score of 0.1 or more and 10 or less mismatch and having PAM (5′-NGN-3 ‘or 5’-NNG-3′) are determined as a off-target sites. In determining off-target sites by Digenome 2.0, sites with DNA cleavage score of 2.5 or more are determined as off-target sites. On the other hand, in the off-target localization by Digenome 1.0, a site with a DNA cleavage score of 2.5 or more is determined as off-target site candidates.

With Digenome 2.0, it was able to identify many additional BE3- and Cas9-associated DNA cleavage sites, including two sites that had been missed in the previous study ((Kim, D., Kim, S., Kim, S., Park, J. & Kim, J. S. Genome-wide target-specificities of CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases revealed by multiplex Digenome-seq. Genome Res (2016)) but had been captured by both HTGTS and GUIDE-seq using EMX1-specific Cas9. FIG. 9 is a Venn diagram showing the number of PAM-containing homologous sites with DNA cleavage scores over 0.1 or higher identified by Digenome-seq of Cas9 nuclease- and Base editor-treated genomic DNA. BE3 deaminases induced base conversions in vitro at 1-67 (18±9) sites, whereas Cas9 nucleases cleaved genomic DNA at 30-241 (90±30) sites.

Example 5. Fraction of Homologous Sites Captured by Digenome-Seq

The inventors examined the BE3- and Cas9-associated sites as shown in FIGS. 7 and 9. FIG. 10 shows fractions of homologous sites captured by Digenome-seq, wherein bars represent the number of homologous sites that differ from on-target sites by up to 6 nt, squares (BE3) and triangles (Cas9) represent the fraction of Digenome-seq captured sites for a range of mismatch numbers. As shown in FIG. 10, regardless of the number of mismatches, fewer homologous sites were identified by Digenome-seq when BE3 was used than when Cas9 was used.

FIGS. 11a and 11b are graphs showing the significant correlation between the number of BE3- and Cas9-associated sites identified by Digenome 1.0 (11 a) and Digenome 2.0 (11 b). As shown in FIGS. 11a and 11b , there was a statistically significant correlation [R²=0.97 (Score >2.5, Digenome 1.0) or 0.86 (Digenome 2.0)] between the number of Cas9- and BE3-associated sites. These results suggest that sgRNAs were the primary determinants of both Cas9 and BE3 specificities.

FIGS. 12a and 12b show the correlation between the number of BE3-associated sites identified by Digenome 1.0 (12 a) or Digenome 2.0 (12 b) and the number of sites with 6 or fewer mismatches. As shown in FIGS. 12a and 12b , a strong correlation [R²=0.94 (Digenome 1.0) or 0.95 (Digenome 2.0)] was observed between the number of BE3-associated, Digenome-captured sites and the number of homologous sites with 6 mismatches in the human genome (defined as “orthogonality”). Of particular interest are those associated with BE3 alone or Cas9 alone. Interestingly, 69% (=18/26) of sites associated with BE3 alone had missing or extra nucleotides, compared to their respective on-target sites, producing, respectively, an RNA or DNA bulge at the DNA-gRNA interface (Table 1). By contrast, these bulge-type off-target sites were rare among Cas9-associated sites. Just 4% (=25/647) of sites associated with Cas9 had missing or extra nucleotides.

FIG. 13 shows examples of Digenome-captured off-target sites associated only with Cas9, which contain no cytosines at positions 4-9. Thirteen % (=73/548) of sites associated with Cas9 alone had no cytosines at positions 4-8 (numbered 1-20 in the 5′ to 3′ direction), the window of BE3-mediated deamination.

To validate off-target effects at BE3-associated sites identified by Digenome-seq, the inventors performed targeted deep sequencing and measured BE3-induced substitution frequencies and Cas9-induced indel frequencies in HEK293T cells. The results are shown in 6 e to 6 h as above and Table 16 as below.

TABLE 16 Mutation frequencies of Cas9 and BE3 in on-target and off-target sites captured by Digenome-seq Base editing efficiency (%) EMX1 G A G T C C G A G C On- C--> Untreated 0.04 0.06 0.15 target Other (+)BE1 8.49 4.72 0.08 (EMX1_4) bases (+)BE2 11.08  10.72  0.09 (+)BE3 49.17  45.06  0.10 G A G T C t a A G C EMX1_1 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.05 other (+)BE1 3.13 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.75 0.05 (+)BE3 15.57  0.07 G A a T C C a A G C EMX1_2 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.08 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.65 0.31 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.32 0.32 0.07 (+)BE3 0.84 0.81 0.07 a A G T C t G A G C EMX1_3 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.02 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.02 0.05 (+)BE3 0.13 0.07 G A a T C C a A G — EMX1_5 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.10 other (+)BE1 0.63 0.24 bases (+)BE2 0.32 0.34 (+)BE3 0.96 0.96 G A G T C C t A G C EMX1_6 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.04 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.06 0.07 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.07 0.08 0.05 (+)BE3 2.43 2.40 0.04 G A G T C C a A G C EMX1_7 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.06 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.10 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.03 0.06 0.09 (+)BE3 0.05 0.09 0.07 G t G T C C t A G — EMX1_8 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.64 0.57 bases (+)BE2 0.54 0.39 (+)BE3 0.37 0.34 a A G T C C G A G g EMX1_9 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.16 other (+)BE1 0.06 0.18 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.17 (+)BE3 0.09 0.25 G A G g C C G A G C EMX1_10 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.10 0.13 other (+)BE1 0.44 0.24 0.16 bases (+)BE2 0.51 0.48 0.15 (+)BE3 3.45 3.70 0.17 a g t T C C a A G C EMX1_11 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.05 0.07 other (+)BE1 1.19 0.44 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.46 0.43 0.05 (+)BE3 0.74 0.62 0.06 G A G T C C a c a C EMX1_12 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.26 0.11 0.11 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.24 0.11 0.11 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.23 0.10 0.10 (+)BE3 0.17 0.33 0.17 0.10 G A G T C C a A G — EMX1_13 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.12 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.11 bases (+)BE2 0.07 0.11 (+)BE3 0.08 0.13 G A G T C C t A G — EMX1_14 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.13 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.17 bases (+)BE2 0.05 0.10 (+)BE3 0.05 0.13 G A a T C C a A G C EMX1_15 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.07 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.08 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.07 0.06 (+)BE3 0.14 0.18 0.05 G t a c C a G A G — EMX1_16 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.05 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.05 0.05 (+)BE3 0.05 0.05 G A G T C C c A G C EMX1_17 C--> Untreated 0.10 0.19 0.09 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.13 0.17 0.09 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.20 0.06 0.03 (+)BE3 0.11 0.20 0.07 0.07 a A G T C C a A G t EMX1_18 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.09 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.09 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.10 (+)BE3 0.09 0.11 a A G T C C a t G C EMX1_19 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.07 0.10 other (+)BE1 0.17 0.10 0.12 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.14 0.08 (+)BE3 0.24 0.30 0.12 G A G T C C t A G — EMX1_20 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.12 other (+)BE1 0.28 0.24 bases (+)BE2 0.39 0.42 (+)BE3 0.50 0.57 G A G T C C c t — C EMX1_21 C--> Untreated 0.16 0.08 0.07 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.15 0.10 0.06 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.20 0.13 0.11 0.05 (+)BE3 0.20 0.12 0.10 0.06 a c G T C t G A G C EMX1_22 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.04 0.11 other (+)BE1 0.17 0.36 0.10 bases (+)BE2 0.13 0.14 0.11 (+)BE3 0.15 0.62 0.12 G A G T t C c A G a EMX1_23 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.08 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.13 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.10 (+)BE3 0.06 0.09 G G A G T C C t A a — EMX1_24 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.18 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.18 bases (+)BE2 0.05 0.19 (+)BE3 0.05 0.22 c A G T C C a A a C EMX1_25 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.05 0.11 0.11 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.10 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.06 0.10 0.11 (+)BE3 0.11 0.07 0.13 0.11 A G A A G A A G A A On- C--> Untreated target other (+)BE1 (EMX1_4) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_1 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A g EMX1_2 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A c A A G A A G A A EMX1_3 C--> Untreated 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.05 (+)BE3 0.05 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_5 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G g A G A A G A A EMX1_6 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G t A G A g G A A EMX1_7 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_8 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A g G A A G A A EMX1_9 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A a g A EMX1_10 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G c A EMX1_11 C--> Untreated 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.07 (+)BE3 0.07 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_12 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G t g EMX1_13 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G g A EMX1_14 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G g A G A A G A A EMX1_15 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A g EMX1_16 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A a A A G A A G A A EMX1_17 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 — G A A G A A G A A EMX1_18 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A g G A A EMX1_19 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A a A A EMX1_20 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G g A G A A G A A EMX1_21 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_22 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A A G A A G A A EMX1_23 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G A G A A G A A G c A EMX1_24 C--> Untreated 0.11 other (+)BE1 0.12 bases (+)BE2 0.11 (+)BE3 0.12 A G A A G A g G A A EMX1_25 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 G G G On- C--> Untreated 0.15 61.59  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (EMX1_4) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G A G EMX1_1 C--> Untreated 0.29 38.25  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A A G EMX1_2 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.01 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G EMX1_3 C--> Untreated 0.10 3.45 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G EMX1_5 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.01 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G A G EMX1_6 C--> Untreated 0.00 8.63 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G EMX1_7 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.01 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G EMX1_8 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.08 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_9 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.23 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C G G EMX1_10 C--> Untreated 0.00 7.94 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G EMX1_11 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.01 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G A EMX1_12 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_13 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_14 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.01 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G A EMX1_15 C--> Untreated 0.46 0.89 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_16 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A A G EMX1_17 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_18 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.01 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G EMX1_19 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.02 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G EMX1_20 C--> Untreated 0.27 0.25 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G EMX1_21 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G EMX1_22 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.17 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G A G EMX1_23 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.01 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G G EMX1_24 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G EMX1_25 C--> Untreated 1.06 1.04 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 FANCF G G A A T C C C T T On- C--> Untreated 0.06 0.10 0.04 target other (+)BE1 0.81 0.39 0.42 (FANCF_2) bases (+)BE2 2.11 2.06 1.97 (+)BE3 10.26  9.44 9.28 t G A A T C C C a T FNACF_1 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.10 0.08 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.10 0.09 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.10 0.12 (+)BE3 0.16 0.16 0.18 G G A g T C C C T c FNACF_3 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.08 other (+)BE1 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.08 (+)BE3 0.20 0.23 0.18 0.16 G G A g T C C C T c FNACF_4 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.02 bases (+)BE2 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.05 (+)BE3 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.05 G G A A T C C C T T FNACF_5 C--> Untreated 0.09 0.07 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.06 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.05 0.06 (+)BE3 0.10 0.07 0.05 G G A g T C C C T c FNACF_6 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 other (+)BE1 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 (+)BE3 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.05 G G A A c C C C g T FNACF_7 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.08 (+)BE3 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.02 G t c t c C C C T T FNACF_8 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 (+)BE3 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.08 a a A A T C C C T T FNACF_9 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.02 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.03 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.02 0.03 (+)BE3 0.10 0.04 0.05 t G t A T t t C T T FNACF_10 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G A A T a t C T T FNACF_11 C--> Untreated 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.03 (+)BE3 0.04 G a g t g C C C T g FNACF_12 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 a c c A T C C C T c FNACF_13 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.14 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.11 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.06 (+)BE3 0.13 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 t G A A T C C t a a FNACF_14 C--> Untreated 0.09 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.07 0.05 (+)BE3 0.10 0.08 c t c t g t C C T T FNACF_15 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.02 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 (+)BE3 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.03 C T G C A G C A C C On- C--> Untreated 0.03 0.13 0.13 0.05 0.04 target other (+)BE1 0.07 0.12 0.13 0.06 0.03 (FANCF_2) bases (+)BE2 0.39 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.02 (+)BE3 4.12 0.18 0.12 0.05 0.04 C T c C A G C A C C FNACF_1 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.08 (+)BE3 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.07 C T a C A G C A C C FNACF_3 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.14 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.13 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.15 (+)BE3 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.18 C T a C A G C A C C FNACF_4 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.06 (+)BE3 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.04 C T a C A G C A t C FNACF_5 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.03 (+)BE3 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.02 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_6 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.12 0.04 0.05 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.11 0.06 0.05 0.05 (+)BE3 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.03 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_7 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.01 0.21 0.05 0.02 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.02 0.23 0.06 0.02 0.05 (+)BE3 0.71 0.22 0.07 0.03 0.07 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_8 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.02 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.02 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.04 (+)BE3 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.03 C c G C A G C A C C FNACF_9 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 (+)BE3 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.03 C T G C c t C A g g FNACF_10 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T G C A G C c C C FNACF_11 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.22 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.10 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.23 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.09 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.21 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.09 (+)BE3 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.09 a a G C c t C A g C FNACF_12 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_13 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.08 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.12 0.04 0.05 0.05 (+)BE3 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.04 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_14 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.05 0.10 0.06 0.10 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.06 (+)BE3 0.03 0.11 0.07 0.10 0.07 C T G C A G C A C C FNACF_15 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 (+)BE3 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 T G G On- C--> Untreated 0.01 44.48  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (FANCF_2) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_1 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.02 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_3 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.37 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_4 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.22 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T G FNACF_5 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G A FNACF_6 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.28 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_7 C--> Untreated 0.01 12.06  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_8 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.05 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T A G FNACF_9 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.08 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T G FNACF_10 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_11 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.03 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G FNACF_12 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_13 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.03 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G FNACF_14 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G FNACF_15 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+1BE3 RNF2 G T C A T C T T A G On- C--> Untreated 0.07 target other (+)BE1 2.90 (RNF2_1) bases (+)BE2 3.89 (+)BE3 31.12  T C A T T A C C T G On- C--> Untreated 0.06 0.03 0.07 target other (+)BE1 0.08 0.03 0.07 (RNF2_1) bases (+)BE2 0.62 0.05 0.08 (+)BE3 3.45 0.16 0.08 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 A G G On- C--> Untreated 0.03 66.13  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (RNF2_1) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 HBB C T T G C C C C A C On- C--> Untreated 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.04 target other (+)BE1 0.04 0.08 0.14 0.17 0.08 0.05 (HBB_1) bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.56 0.80 0.83 0.80 0.07 (+)BE3 0.10 3.01 4.51 4.88 4.64 0.14 t T g c t C C C A C HBB_2 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.14 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.05 (+)BE3 0.42 0.89 0.84 0.86 0.07 g c T G C C C C A C HBB_3 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.11 0.03 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.03 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.09 0.05 (+)BE3 0.09 0.80 0.86 0.87 0.75 0.07 g T g G C C C C A C HBB_4 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.09 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.14 0.07 0.08 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.15 0.08 0.12 0.04 (+)BE3 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.16 0.07 a T T G C C C C A C HBB_5 C--> Untreated 0.12 0.19 0.73 0.40 0.16 other (+)BE1 0.16 0.20 0.76 0.47 0.19 bases (+)BE2 0.14 0.16 0.77 0.51 0.17 (+)BE3 0.36 0.42 0.95 0.73 0.20 a c T c t C C C A C HBB_6 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.12 0.08 0.11 0.20 0.08 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.16 0.10 0.09 0.20 0.10 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.16 0.11 0.11 0.21 0.10 0.05 (+)BE3 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.22 0.09 0.05 t c a G C C C C A C HBB_7 C--> Untreated 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.14 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.06 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.27 0.09 0.22 0.25 0.19 0.05 (+)BE3 2.82 0.80 2.89 4.01 4.20 0.14 A G G G C A G T A A On- C--> Untreated 0.08 target other (+)BE1 0.07 (HBB_1) bases (+)BE2 0.06 (+)BE3 0.08 A G G G C A G T A A HBB_2 C--> Untreated 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.06 (+)BE3 0.06 A G G G C A G c A A HBB_3 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.09 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.12 0.09 (+)BE3 0.11 0.09 A G G G C A G g A A HBB_4 C--> Untreated 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.07 (+)BE3 0.08 g G G G C A G T g A HBB_5 C--> Untreated 0.20 other (+)BE1 0.25 bases (+)BE2 0.28 (+)BE3 0.21 A a G G C A G T A A HBB_6 C--> Untreated 0.17 other (+)BE1 0.14 bases (+)BE2 0.20 (+)BE3 0.17 A G G G C A G T A A HBB_7 C--> Untreated 0.08 other (+)BE1 0.14 bases (+)BE2 0.09 (+)BE3 0.09 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 C G G On- C--> Untreated 0.02 38.35  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (HBB_1) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A C G HBB_2 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.01 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HBB_3 C--> Untreated 0.01 3.57 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HBB_4 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.70 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C G G HBB_5 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.35 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HBB_6 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.01 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HBB_7 C--> Untreated 0.00 20.92  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 HEK2 G A A C A C A A A G On- C--> Untreated 0.04 0.05 target other (+)BE1 0.65 10.29  (HEK2_2) bases (+)BE2 7.32 14.69  (+)BE3 11.74  33.30  G A A C A C A A t G HEK2_1 C--> Untreated 0.10 0.09 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.10 bases (+)BE2 0.13 0.12 (+)BE3 0.17 0.21 a A c t c C A A A G HEK2_3 C--> Untreated 0.09 0.09 0.34 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.07 0.37 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.07 0.38 (+)BE3 0.09 0.07 0.38 C A T A G A C T G C On- C--> Untreated 0.04 0.16 target other (+)BE1 0.04 0.18 (HEK2_2) bases (+)BE2 0.03 0.17 (+)BE3 0.07 0.18 C A T A G A t T G C HEK2_1 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.18 other (+)BE1 0.13 0.21 bases (+)BE2 0.11 0.16 (+)BE3 0.11 0.19 C A T A t A C T G C HEK2_3 C--> Untreated 0.25 0.09 other (+)BE1 0.24 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.19 0.08 (+)BE3 0.24 0.07 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 G G G On- C--> Untreated 0.00 43.28  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (HEK2_2) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C G G HEK2_1 C--> Untreated 0.00 1.01 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK2_3 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 HEK3 G G C C C A G A C T On- C--> Untreated 0.13 0.46 0.42 0.14 target other (+)BE1 0.38 6.45 8.56 0.59 (HEK3_2) bases (+)BE2 0.37 6.27 8.17 0.41 (+)BE3 1.00 24.71  31.39  0.76 a G C t C A G A C T HEK3_1 C--> Untreated 0.12 0.04 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.12 0.04 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.13 0.05 0.08 (+)BE3 0.13 0.09 0.05 G t g g C c c A g a HEK3_3 C--> Untreated 0.07 0.06 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.05 0.10 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.05 0.06 (+)BE3 0.07 0.05 0.07 c a C C C A G A C T HEK3_4 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.01 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.02 (+)BE3 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.02 c G g C C c a A C T HEK3_5 C--> Untreated 0.16 0.08 0.13 0.10 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.19 0.11 0.14 0.07 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.16 0.08 0.13 0.09 0.05 (+)BE3 0.16 0.08 0.13 0.09 0.05 a G a C C A G A C T HEK3_6 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.10 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.12 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.12 0.06 (+)BE3 0.10 0.11 0.05 G G C C a c t c a T HEK3_7 C--> Untreated 0.45 0.15 0.05 0.19 other (+)BE1 0.45 0.16 0.08 0.19 bases (+)BE2 0.47 0.17 0.09 0.19 (+)BE3 0.44 0.16 0.08 0.19 G A G C A C G T G A On- C--> Untreated 0.10 0.07 target other (+)BE1 0.14 0.08 (HEK3_2) bases (+)BE2 0.20 0.06 (+)BE3 0.09 0.10 G A G C A a G T G A HEK3_1 C--> Untreated 0.14 other (+)BE1 0.13 bases (+)BE2 0.17 (+)BE3 0.13 G A G C A C G T G t HEK3_3 C--> Untreated 0.12 0.13 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.11 bases (+)BE2 0.11 0.12 (+)BE3 0.10 0.10 G A G C A C G T G c HEK3_4 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.06 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.13 0.04 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.05 0.05 (+)BE3 0.13 0.05 0.05 G A G C A a G T G A HEK3_5 C--> Untreated 0.19 other (+)BE1 0.21 bases (+)BE2 0.16 (+)BE3 0.20 G A G C A a G a G A HEK3_6 C--> Untreated 0.20 other (+)BE1 0.19 bases (+)BE2 0.19 (+)BE3 0.16 G g c C A C a T a c HEK3_7 C--> Untreated 0.29 0.26 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.30 0.28 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.31 0.24 0.06 (+)BE3 0.29 0.26 0.06 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 T G G On- C--> Untreated 0.00 60.16  Validated Validated target other (+)BE1 (HEK3_2) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK3_1 C--> Untreated 0.00 2.93 Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK3_3 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK3_4 C--> Untreated 0.00 4.16 Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK3_5 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK3_6 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.02 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK3_7 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 HEK4 G G C A C T G C G G On- C--> Untreated 0.16 0.11 0.20 target other (+)BE1 0.17 6.18 0.25 (HEK4_1) bases (+)BE2 0.65 10.35  0.84 (+)BE3 2.34 41.18  0.80 G G C A C T G C t G HEK4_2 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.05 0.15 other (+)BE1 0.13 0.38 0.14 bases (+)BE2 0.16 0.46 0.13 (+)BE3 0.31 5.93 0.22 G G C A C T G C a — HEK4_3 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.05 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.22 0.09 bases (+)BE2 0.11 0.22 0.07 (+)BE3 0.09 0.39 0.08 G G C t C T G C G G HEK4_4 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.05 0.34 other (+)BE1 0.05 0.26 0.35 bases (+)BE2 0.06 0.19 0.35 (+)BE3 0.07 2.07 0.34 a G C A C T G C a G HEK4_5 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.07 0.11 other (+)BE1 0.09 0.11 0.11 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.07 0.10 (+)BE3 0.10 0.52 0.20 G G C A C T G C G G HEK4_6 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 t G C A C T G C G G HEK4_7 C--> Untreated 0.21 0.12 0.36 other (+)BE1 0.15 0.53 0.31 bases (+)BE2 0.19 1.25 0.32 (+)BE3 0.37 10.75  0.41 G G C A C T — g G G HEK4_8 C--> Untreated 0.09 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.15 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.17 (+)BE3 0.07 0.18 G G C A C T G t G G HEK4_9 C--> Untreated 0.09 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.08 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.12 0.03 (+)BE3 0.12 0.02 t G C t C T G C G G HEK4_10 C--> Untreated 0.08 0.17 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.17 0.06 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.18 0.07 (+)BE3 0.08 0.19 0.07 a G C A C T G C a G HEK4_11 C--> Untreated 0.16 0.05 0.13 other (+)BE1 0.12 0.47 0.12 bases (+)BE2 0.13 0.64 0.14 (+)BE3 0.19 1.83 0.18 G G C A C T G a G G HEK4_12 C--> Untreated 0.10 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.65 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.47 (+)BE3 0.09 0.99 G G C A C T G g G G HEK4_13 C--> Untreated 0.13 0.15 other (+)BE1 0.12 0.14 bases (+)BE2 0.10 0.13 (+)BE3 0.11 0.12 a G g A C T G C G G HEK4_14 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.28 other (+)BE1 0.50 0.37 bases (+)BE2 0.63 0.38 (+)BE3 5.20 0.50 G G C A C T G C a a HEK4_15 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.06 0.12 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.08 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.08 0.08 (+)BE3 0.10 0.26 0.09 G G C A C T G g G G HEK4_16 C--> Untreated 0.17 0.16 other (+)BE1 0.14 1.01 bases (+)BE2 0.17 0.58 (+)BE3 0.38 3.41 G c C A C T G C a G HEK4_17 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.05 0.07 0.20 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.06 0.24 0.13 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.10 0.27 0.14 (+)BE3 0.12 0.34 3.12 0.22 G c C A C T G C G a HEK4_18 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.07 0.06 60.77 other (+)BE1 0.10 0.05 0.08 61.73 bases (+)BE2 0.12 0.03 0.05 60.63 (+)BE3 0.10 0.08 0.12 60.98 G G C A C T G — G G HEK4_19 C--> Untreated 0.06 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.07 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.08 0.06 (+)BE3 0.08 0.05 a G C t C T G C G G HEK4_20 C--> Untreated 0.24 0.02 0.20 other (+)BE1 0.21 0.03 0.20 bases (+)BE2 0.21 0.02 0.17 (+)BE3 0.23 0.02 0.22 C T G G A G G T G G On- C--> Untreated 0.07 target other (+)BE1 0.07 (HEK4_1) bases (+)BE2 0.06 (+)BE3 0.07 C T G G g G G T G G HEK4_2 C--> Untreated 0.98 other (+)BE1 0.98 bases (+)BE2 0.93 (+)BE3 1.07 C T G G A G G T t G HEK4_3 C--> Untreated 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.05 (+)BE3 0.03 C T G G A G G g G G HEK4_4 C--> Untreated 0.13 other (+)BE1 0.13 bases (+)BE2 0.15 (+)BE3 0.17 a T G G A G G a G G HEK4_5 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C a G G g a G g a G HEK4_6 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C c G G A G G a G G HEK4_7 C--> Untreated 0.14 0.09 other (+)BE1 0.13 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.11 0.14 (+)BE3 0.12 0.07 C T G a A G G T a G HEK4_8 C--> Untreated 0.08 other (+)BE1 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.07 (+)BE3 0.06 C T G c A G G T G G HEK4_9 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.04 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.03 (+)BE3 0.04 0.05 C a G G A G G a G G HEK4_10 C--> Untreated 0.06 other (+)BE1 0.05 bases (+)BE2 0.07 (+)BE3 0.07 C T G G g a G T G G HEK4_11 C--> Untreated 0.07 other (+)BE1 0.07 bases (+)BE2 0.08 (+)BE3 0.08 g T G G A G G T G G HEK4_12 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T G G A G a c G G HEK4_13 C--> Untreated 0.13 0.23 other (+)BE1 0.11 0.18 bases (+)BE2 0.09 0.15 (+)BE3 0.12 0.18 C T G G g G G T G G HEK4_14 C--> Untreated 0.05 other (+)BE1 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.04 (+)BE3 0.04 C T G G A a G T G a HEK4_15 C--> Untreated 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.02 bases (+)BE2 0.02 (+)BE3 0.03 t T G G A G G T G G HEK4_16 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C T a G A G G T G G HEK4_17 C--> Untreated 0.03 other (+)BE1 0.04 bases (+)BE2 0.04 (+)BE3 0.04 C T G G A G G a G G HEK4_18 C--> Untreated 0.04 other (+)BE1 0.03 bases (+)BE2 0.05 (+)BE3 0.04 C T G G A G G c G G HEK4_19 C--> Untreated 0.05 0.12 other (+)BE1 0.06 0.11 bases (+)BE2 0.04 0.10 (+)BE3 0.07 0.09 C a G G A G t T G G HEK4_20 C--> Untreated 0.12 other (+)BE1 0.08 bases (+)BE2 0.08 (+)BE3 0.11 Indel frequency (%) (−) (+) Validation Base editing efficiency (%) RGEN RGEN BE3 Cas9 G G G On- C--> Untreated 0.00 59.38  target other (+)BE1 Validated Validated (HEK4_1) bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_2 C--> Untreated 0.02 35.65  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_3 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.00 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_4 C--> Untreated 0.07 29.61  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 C G G HEK4_5 C--> Untreated 0.00 0.08 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_6 C--> Untreated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_7 C--> Untreated 0.02 35.87  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_8 C--> Untreated 0.04 0.04 Validated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_9 C--> Untreated 0.02 25.09  Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_10 C--> Untreated 2.67 3.08 Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_11 C--> Untreated 0.04 8.97 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_12 C--> Untreated 0.08 10.38  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_13 C--> Untreated 0.11 0.69 Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_14 C--> Untreated 0.38 46.26  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 T G G HEK4_15 C--> Untreated 0.01 0.14 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_16 C--> Untreated 0.12 25.87  Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_17 C--> Untreated 0.01 2.93 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_18 C--> Untreated 0.16 0.37 Validated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 G G G HEK4_19 C--> Untreated 0.10 0.11 Invalidated Invalidated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3 A G G HEK4_20 C--> Untreated 0.02 0.07 Invalidated Validated other (+)BE1 bases (+)BE2 (+)BE3

The inventors analyzed a total of 75 sites identified using 7 sgRNAs and observed BE3-induced point mutations at 50 sites, including all 7 on-target sites, with frequencies above noise levels caused by sequencing errors (typically in the range of 0.1-2%), resulting in a validation rate of 67%. It is possible that BE3 can still induce mutagenesis at the other BE3-associated, Digenome-positive sites with frequencies below background noise levels. Importantly, we were able to identify BE3 off-target sites at which base editing was detected with a frequency of 0.1%, demonstrating that Digenome-seq is a highly sensitive method. Cas9 nucleases detectably induced indels at 70% (=44/63) of the sites associated with both Cas9 and BE3 but failed to do so at each of the 12 sites associated with BE3 alone (Tables 2-8).

FIGS. 14a-14c show base editing efficiencies at Digenome-captured sites associated only with 3 different Cas9 nucleases. As shown in FIGS. 14a-14c , BE3 did not detectably cause substitutions at 24 Digenome-positive sites associated with 3 different Cas9 nucleases alone. Furthermore, FIGS. 15a-15c show base editing efficiencies of 3 different BE3 deaminases at Digenome-negative sites. As shown in FIGS. 15a-15c , the 3 BE3 deaminases did not induce base editing at 28 Digenome-negative sites with 3 mismatches, identified using Cas-OFFinder (Bae, S., Park, J. & Kim, J. S. Cas-OFFinder: A fast and versatile algorithm that searches for potential off-target sites of Cas9 RNA-guided endonucleases. Bioinformatics (2014)) (FIGS. 15a-15c ). Frequencies of BE3-induced substitutions were well-correlated with those of Cas9-mediated indels [R²=0.92 (EMX1) or 0.89 (HBB)] (FIG. 6e, f ). Nevertheless, there were many off-target sites validated by BE3 but not by Cas9. 64% (=7/11) of these validated, BE3-exclusive off-target sites had a missing nt, compared to their respective on-target sites. These results show that Cas9 and BE3 off-target sites largely overlap with each other but that there are off-target sites exclusively associated with Cas9 alone or BE3 alone (FIG. 10).

Example 6. Reducing BE3 Off-Target Effects Via Modified sgRNAs

To reduce BE3 off-target effects, the inventors replaced conventional sgRNAs (termed gX₁₉ or GX₁₉; “g” and “G” represent, respectively, a mismatched and matched guanine) with truncated sgRNAs (termed gX₁₈ or gX₁₇) or extended sgRNAs containing one or two extra guanines at the 5′ terminus (termed gX₂₀ or ggX₂₀) and measured on-target and off-target base-editing frequencies in HEK293T cells. The results are shown in FIGS. 16-17 and Table 3.

TABLE 17 Analysis of BE3 off-target effect via modified sgRNAs EMX1 A G T C C G A G C A G A A G A A G A A G G G 0.04 0.06 0.15 49.01 46.36 0.10 54.78 50.04 0.14 49.17 45.06 0.10 48.68 37.61 0.09 48.71 37.70 0.14 A G T C t a A G C A G A A G A A G A A G A G 0.04 0.05 1.26 0.05 8.50 0.06 15.57 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.05 A a T C C a A G C A G A A G A A G A g A A G 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.40 0.36 0.05 0.80 0.75 0.07 0.84 0.81 0.07 0.22 0.23 0.08 0.16 0.17 0.06 A G T C t G A G C A c A A G A A G A A T G G 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.04 A a T C C a A G — A G A A G A A G A A T G G 0.11 0.05 1.09 1.11 2.31 2.27 0.96 0.96 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.12 A G T C C t A G C A G g A G A A G A A G A G 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.34 0.35 0.05 1.69 1.71 0.05 2.43 2.40 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.04 A G T C C a A G C A G t A G A g G A A G G G 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.05 0.08 t G T C C t A G — A G A A G A A G A A G G G 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.09 0.36 0.35 0.64 0.57 0.60 0.56 0.62 0.80 A G T C C G A G g A G A g G A A G A A A G G 0.05 0.16 0.04 0.14 0.05 0.17 0.06 0.18 0.05 0.18 0.05 0.16 A G g C C G A G C A G A A G A A a g A C G G 0.14 0.10 0.13 0.26 0.21 0.12 0.44 0.39 0.19 3.45 3.70 0.17 0.17 0.10 0.15 0.18 0.09 0.16 g t T C C a A G C A G A A G A A G c A T G G 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.27 0.28 0.07 0.07 0.74 0.70 0.07 0.08 0.74 0.62 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.07 A G T C C a c a C A G A A G A A G A A A G A 0.06 0.26 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.21 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.23 0.09 0.11 0.17 0.33 0.17 0.10 0.07 0.25 0.10 0.13 0.08 0.23 0.11 0.11 A G T C C a A G — A G A A G A A G t g A G G 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.11 0.07 0.11 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.13 A G T C C t A G — A G A A G A A G g A A G G 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.19 0.07 0.17 0.05 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.05 0.14 A a T C C a A G C A G g A G A A G A A G G A 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.15 0.04 0.54 0.60 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.06 t a c C a G A G — A G A A G A A G A g A G G 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.05 A G T C C c A G C A a A A G A A G A A A A G 0.10 0.19 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.16 0.10 0.07 0.19 0.24 0.13 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.07 0.07 0.12 0.24 0.09 0.06 0.12 0.20 0.07 0.06 A G T C C a A G t — G A A G A A G A A A G G 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.09 A G T C C a t G C A G A A G A g G A A G G G 0.03 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.08 0.12 0.24 0.30 0.12 0.03 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.09 A G T C C t A G — A G A A G A A a A A G G G 0.05 0.12 0.21 0.26 0.43 0.50 0.50 0.57 0.06 0.12 0.05 0.12 A G T C C c t — C A G g A G A A G A A A G G 0.16 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.12 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.15 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.24 0.17 0.16 0.06 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.14 0.08 0.06 0.02 c G T C t G A G C A G A A G A A G A A T G G 0.14 0.04 0.11 0.14 0.16 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.16 0.15 0.62 0.12 0.22 1.24 0.12 0.13 4.49 0.11 A G T t C c A G a A G A A G A A G A A G A G 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.07 0.09 A G T C C t A a — A G A A G A A G c A G G G 0.05 0.18 0.11 0.06 0.20 0.16 0.07 0.19 0.12 0.05 0.22 0.12 0.07 0.19 0.15 0.04 0.18 0.12 A G T C C a A a C A G A A G A g G A A T G G 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.12 0.09 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.05 0.14 0.13 0.07 0.13 0.12 FANCF G A A T C C C T T C T G C A G C A C C T G G 0.06 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.13 0.13 0.05 0.04 9.20 8.19 7.94 4.25 0.12 0.12 0.06 0.04 8.12 7.31 6.89 3.01 0.13 0.12 0.05 0.03 10.26 9.44 9.28 4.12 0.18 0.12 0.05 0.04 9.74 8.81 8.16 3.14 0.15 0.14 0.06 0.02 3.36 2.80 2.77 1.14 0.12 0.12 0.05 0.04 G A A T C C C a T C T c C A G C A C C A G G 0.07 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.11 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.09 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.07 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.25 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.02 0.07 G A g T C C C T c C T a C A G C A C C A G G 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.14 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.15 0.10 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.18 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.18 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.17 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.11 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.15 G A g T C C C T c C T a C A G C A C C A G G 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.06 G A A T C C C T T C T a C A G C A t C C T G 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.02 G A g T C C C T c C T G C A G C A C C T G A 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.12 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.04 G A A c C C C g T C T G C A G C A C C A G G 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.27 0.29 0.28 0.32 0.10 0.21 0.05 0.02 0.07 1.46 1.50 1.49 1.48 0.80 0.20 0.04 0.04 0.06 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.02 0.71 0.22 0.07 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.01 0.17 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.01 0.17 0.05 0.03 0.06 t c t c C C C T T C T G C A G C A C C A G G 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.13 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.02 0.04 a A A T C C C T T C c G C A G C A C C T A G 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.06 G t A T t t C T T C T G C c t C A g g C T G G A A T a t C T T C T G C A G C c C C A G G 0.03 0.05 0.22 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.03 0.05 0.23 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.03 0.23 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.20 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.24 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.08 a g t g C C C T g a a G C c t C A g C T G G c c A T C C C T c C T G C A G C A C C A G G 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.13 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.14 0.12 1.03 0.99 0.94 0.40 0.14 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.15 2.04 1.96 1.94 0.75 0.26 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.04 G A A T C C t a a C T G C A G C A C C A G G 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.46 0.42 0.04 0.13 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.07 t c t g t C C T T C T G C A G C A C C T G G 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.02 RNF2 T C A T C T T A G T C A T T A C C T G A G G 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.07 22.35 29.23 3.10 0.10 0.08 20.82 28.93 3.23 0.10 0.09 19.23 31.12 3.45 0.16 0.08 9.19 19.16 1.61 0.07 0.08 2.34 7.73 0.95 0.06 0.09 HBB T T G C C C C A C A G G G C A G T A A C G G 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.08 4.66 6.16 6.49 5.84 0.15 0.08 2.76 3.27 3.37 3.07 0.11 0.07 3.01 4.51 4.88 4.64 0.14 0.08 2.20 8.12 6.80 6.30 0.15 0.07 0.63 3.27 4.07 3.74 0.10 0.10 T g c t C C C A C A G G G C A G T A A A C G 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.42 0.89 0.84 0.86 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.08 c T G C C C C A C A G G G C A G c A A A G G 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.03 0.07 0.14 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.08 0.07 0.15 0.07 0.10 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.70 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.09 0.80 0.88 0.87 0.75 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.46 0.64 0.64 0.53 0.05 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.16 0.19 0.24 0.18 0.04 0.14 0.09 T g G C C C C A C A G G G C A G g A A T G G 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.11 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.07 0.09 0.04 0.06 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.16 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.24 0.17 0.20 0.08 0.06 0.84 1.61 1.58 1.53 0.16 0.05 T T G C C C C A C g G G G C A G T g A C G G 0.12 0.19 0.73 0.40 0.16 0.20 0.16 0.20 0.73 0.48 0.19 0.25 0.20 0.23 0.80 0.47 0.14 0.21 0.38 0.42 0.95 0.73 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.32 0.89 0.60 0.20 0.24 0.17 0.20 0.75 0.49 0.20 0.22 c T c t C C C A C A a G G C A G T A A G G G 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.20 0.08 0.05 0.17 0.09 0.14 0.09 0.24 0.09 0.05 0.19 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.23 0.14 0.04 0.22 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.22 0.09 0.05 0.17 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.26 0.11 0.06 0.22 0.10 0.16 0.11 0.24 0.10 0.04 0.19 c a G C C C C A C A G G G C A G T A A G G G 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.37 0.17 0.76 0.99 1.08 0.08 0.09 0.47 0.41 1.72 2.24 2.30 0.15 0.08 0.82 0.80 2.89 4.01 4.20 0.14 0.09 0.34 1.71 5.48 7.00 7.65 0.30 0.08 0.86 1.68 5.97 7.44 7.65 0.15 0.10 HEK2 A A C A C A A A G C A T A G A C T G C G G G 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.19 30.30 47.30 0.03 0.14 0.15 36.78 44.99 0.08 0.13 0.16 11.89 34.66 0.05 0.27 0.15 2.02 45.27 0.02 0.03 0.19 2.77 30.94 0.02 0.03 0.18 A A C A C A A t G C A T A G A t T G C C G G 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.16 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.19 0.19 0.22 0.12 0.18 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.13 0.20 A c t c C A A A G C A T A t A C T G C T G G 0.07 0.09 0.37 0.24 0.24 0.09 0.08 0.39 0.24 0.30 0.08 0.08 0.38 0.25 0.28 0.08 0.08 0.38 0.24 0.27 0.06 0.08 0.39 0.24 0.30 0.06 0.06 0.36 0.23 0.28 HEK3 G C C C A G A C T G A G C A C G T A A T G G 0.15 0.47 0.39 0.15 0.08 0.06 6.89 25.21 26.19 0.61 0.07 0.05 6.36 32.68 37.05 1.76 0.06 0.11 0.93 25.39 32.09 0.75 0.09 0.13 0.85 14.23 21.59 1.68 0.09 0.10 0.14 0.65 0.85 0.40 0.10 0.06 G C t C A G A C T G A G C A a G T G A G G G 0.13 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.14 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.15 0.14 0.09 0.04 0.17 0.14 0.04 0.06 0.13 0.11 0.04 0.05 0.12 t g g C c c A g a G A G C A C G T G t G G G 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.18 0.08 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.12 a C C C A G A C T G A G C A C G T G c T G G 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.13 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.02 0.11 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.01 0.10 0.07 0.05 G g C C c a A C T G A G C A a G T G A T G G 0.09 0.14 0.08 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.04 0.19 0.08 0.13 0.09 0.03 0.18 0.10 0.13 0.09 0.05 0.20 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.05 0.18 0.07 0.14 0.07 0.06 0.19 G a C C A G A C T G A G C A a G a G A G G G 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.11 0.05 0.19 0.09 0.11 0.04 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.05 0.18 0.10 0.11 0.03 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.06 0.15 G C G a c t c a T G g c C A C a T a c T G G 0.38 0.18 0.06 0.18 0.30 0.30 0.07 0.06 0.42 0.15 0.07 0.20 0.28 0.27 0.07 0.05 0.39 0.14 0.08 0.15 0.28 0.21 0.08 0.06 0.44 0.15 0.07 0.17 0.28 0.26 0.06 0.06 0.45 0.14 0.07 0.16 0.25 0.26 0.06 0.05 0.42 0.14 0.07 0.19 0.26 0.26 0.07 0.04 HEK4 G C A C T G C G G C T G G A G G T G G G G G 0.17 0.08 0.23 0.07 1.97 48.84 1.50 0.08 1.20 44.02 1.39 0.06 1.38 41.26 0.50 0.10 0.27 39.88 1.43 0.07 0.23 5.72 1.10 0.35 G C A C T G C t G C T G G g G G T G G T G G 0.14 0.04 0.11 0.91 0.17 0.39 0.13 0.93 0.21 1.86 0.15 1.11 0.27 6.55 0.25 0.99 0.16 0.11 0.14 0.90 0.15 0.06 0.10 0.93 G C A C T G C a — C T G G A G G T t G T G G 0.09 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.10 0.26 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.27 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.05 G C t C T G C G G C T G G A G G g G G T G G 0.05 0.05 0.29 0.14 0.13 2.87 0.34 0.13 0.11 2.94 0.36 0.14 0.10 2.53 0.35 0.15 0.04 0.13 0.30 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.29 0.13 G C A C T G C a G a T G G A G G a G G C G G 0.09 0.03 0.11 0.11 0.03 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.14 0.15 0.58 0.17 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.10 G C A C T G C G G C a G G g a G g a G G G G G C A C T G C G G C c G G A G G a G G T G G 0.24 0.10 0.38 0.14 0.08 0.18 0.38 0.29 0.13 0.06 0.19 1.64 0.36 0.14 0.09 0.43 9.74 0.32 0.13 0.08 1.01 11.33 0.56 0.11 0.06 0.18 0.16 0.26 0.13 0.08 G C A C T — g G G C T G a A G G T a G A G G 0.08 0.03 0.09 0.18 0.64 0.05 0.18 0.62 0.05 0.07 0.16 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.06 G C A C T G t G G C T G c A G G T G G A G G 0.11 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.12 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.03 G C t C T G C G G C a G G A G G a G G A G G 0.08 0.18 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.17 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.16 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.16 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.17 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 G C A C T G C a G C T G G g a G T G G A G G 0.16 0.05 0.15 0.08 0.11 0.17 0.10 0.08 0.15 0.35 0.16 0.08 0.19 1.78 0.27 0.11 0.13 0.33 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.07 0.10 0.09 G C A C T G a G G g T G G A G G T G G G G G 0.07 0.04 0.27 1.09 0.30 1.94 0.07 1.09 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.03 G C A C T G g G G C T G G A G a c G G G G G 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.21 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.20 0.12 0.19 0.11 0.19 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.19 0.12 0.13 0.10 0.18 G g A C T G C G G C T G G g G G T G G T G G 0.05 0.29 0.03 1.37 0.31 0.04 1.03 0.44 0.05 4.70 0.38 0.06 1.67 0.29 0.04 6.06 0.88 0.07 G C A C T G C a a C T G G A a G T G a T G G 0.11 0.06 0.11 0.02 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.03 0.10 0.32 0.09 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.02 G C A C T G g G G t T G G A G G T G G G G G 0.16 0.18 0.69 2.90 0.87 3.94 0.29 3.17 0.18 0.21 0.15 0.15 c C A C T G C a G C T a G A G G T G G A G G 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.16 0.04 0.11 0.10 0.69 0.17 0.04 0.11 0.16 1.46 0.17 0.04 0.11 0.29 3.27 0.28 0.04 0.13 0.14 0.69 0.15 0.04 0.12 0.12 0.23 0.18 0.03 c C A C T G C G a C T G G A G G a G G G G G 0.16 0.06 0.06 61.49 0.05 0.12 0.06 0.06 60.75 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.06 60.11 0.05 0.12 0.08 0.11 61.02 0.05 0.14 0.08 0.08 60.97 0.03 0.12 0.07 0.08 60.12 0.05 G C A C T G — G G C T G G A G G c G G G G G 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.10 0.05 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.06 G C t C T G C G G C a G G A G t T G G A G G 0.22 0.03 0.22 0.10 0.25 0.02 0.20 0.10 0.23 0.02 0.21 0.10 0.22 0.02 0.20 0.09 0.23 0.02 0.16 0.09 0.25 0.02 0.23 0.10

FIG. 16a schematically shows a conventional sgRNA (gX19 sgRNA), a truncated sgRNA (gX18 or gX17 sgRNA) and an extended sgRNA (gX20 or ggX20 sgRNA). FIG. 16b shows base-editing frequencies at the HBB on- and off-target sites in HEK293T cells measured by targeted deep sequencing. Specificity ratios were calculated by dividing the base-editing frequency at the on-target site with that at off-target sites. The heatmap represents relative specificities of modified sgRNAs, compared to that of conventional sgRNA.

FIG. 17 shows the result of reducing BE3 off-target effects using modified sgRNAs, wherein 17 a shows a schematic view of conventional sgRNAs (GX₁₉ sgRNA) and modified sgRNAs (GX₁₇ sgRNA, gX₁₈ sgRNA, gX₂₀ sgRNA, and ggX₂₀ sgRNA), and 17 b shows base editing efficiencies (frequencies) measured at the EMX1 on- and off-target sites by targeted deep sequencing in HEK293T cells.

As shown in FIGS. 16a, 16b, 17a, and 17b , truncated sgRNAs reduced off-target effects at many sites but exacerbated them at sites with mismatches at the 5′ terminus (shown by asterisks in FIGS. 16b and 17b ). Extended sgRNAs reduced off-target effects at almost every site without sacrificing on-target effects. Interestingly, some extended sgRNAs were more active at on-target sites than conventional sgRNAs (Table 17). Use of attenuated Cas9 variants or delivery of BE3 RNPs rather than plasmids may further improve the genome-wide specificity of base editing.

In summary, the results obtained using mismatched sgRNAs, Digenome-seq, and targeted deep sequencing showed that BE3 deaminases were highly specific, catalyzing C-to-U conversions in vitro and base editing in human cells at a limited number of sites in the human genome. It was also found that BE3 and Cas9 off-target sites were not always coincidental, justifying independent assessments of each tool. It is expect that the above results and methods will accelerate broad use of RNA-guided programmable deaminases in research and medicine.

Example 7. BE1 (rAPOBEC1-dCas9)-Mediated Double Strand Breaks (DSBs)

A PCR amplicon containing a target sequence (ENX1 on-target sequence; SEQ ID NO: 31) was incubated with BE1 (rAPOBEC1-dCas9; Example 2) and its sgRNA (sgRNA targeting SEQ ID NO: 31) in vitro to induce Cytidine to Uracil conversions. Uracil, which is induced by rAPOBEC1, was removed by USER (Uracil-Specific Excision Reagent) Enzyme (New England Biolabs). Then, 51 nuclease (Catalog #M5761; Promega) was treated to cleave phosphodiester bonds in a single-strand DNA, producing a DSB at the cytosine-deaminated site (FIG. 22 (a)).

The above-obtained PCR amplicon was subjected to electrophoresis, to confirm that they are cleaved by the treatment of BE1/sgRNA, USER, and 51 Nuclease (FIG. 22 (b)).

From the above description, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. In this regard, it should be understood that the above-described embodiments are to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the present invention should be construed as being included in the scope of the present invention without departing from the scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. 

1-23. (canceled)
 24. A method of generating a double strand break in DNA using a cytosine deaminase, comprising: (i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; and (ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes wherein amino acid residue D10 is substituted with other amino acid, the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA, and the nucleic acid sequence analysis of step (iii) is performed by a whole genome sequencing.
 25. A method of analyzing nucleic acid sequence of DNA in which a base editing is introduced by cytosine deaminase, comprising: (i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; (ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand cleavage in DNA; and (iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment, wherein the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein or Cpf1 protein, which lacks endonuclease activity of cleaving a DNA double strand.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes wherein amino acid residue D10 is substituted with other amino acid.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease are in a form of a fusion protein, or the cytosine deaminase coding gene and inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene encode a fusion protein comprising the cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease.
 29. The method of claim 25, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes wherein both of amino acid residues D10 and H840 are substituted with other amino acids, and the method further comprises a step of treating an endonuclease specifically cleaving a single strand region of DNA, after step (ii).
 30. The method of claim 25, wherein the guide RNA is a crRNA:tracrRNA duplex in which crRNA and tracrRNA is coupled to each other, or a single-strand guide RNA (sgRNA).
 31. The method of claim 25, which is performed in vitro.
 32. The method of claim 25, wherein the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA, and the nucleic acid sequence analysis of step (iii) is performed by a whole genome sequencing.
 33. A method of identifying a base editing site of cytosine deaminase, comprising: (i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; (ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand cleavage in DNA; (iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment; and (iv) identifying the double strand cleavage site in the nucleic acid sequence read obtained by the analysis, wherein the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein or Cpf1 protein, which lacks endonuclease activity of cleaving a DNA double strand.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes wherein amino acid residue D10 is substituted with other amino acid.
 36. The method of claim 33, wherein the cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease are in a form of a fusion protein, or the cytosine deaminase coding gene and inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene encode a fusion protein comprising the cytosine deaminase and inactivated target-specific endonuclease.
 37. The method of claim 33, wherein the inactivated target-specific endonuclease is a Cas9 protein derived from Streptococcus pyogenes wherein both of amino acid residues D10 and H840 are substituted with other amino acids, and the method further comprises a step of treating an endonuclease specifically cleaving a single strand region of DNA, after step (ii).
 38. The method of claim 33, wherein the guide RNA is a crRNA:tracrRNA duplex in which crRNA and tracrRNA is coupled to each other, or a single-strand guide RNA (sgRNA).
 39. The method of claim 33, which is performed in vitro.
 40. The method of claim 33, wherein the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA, and the nucleic acid sequence analysis of step (iii) is performed by a whole genome sequencing.
 41. A method of identifying an off-target site of cytosine deaminase, comprising: (i) introducing or contacting (a) a cytosine deaminase and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease, or (b) a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, or (c) a plasmid comprising a cytosine deaminase coding gene and an inactivated target-specific endonuclease coding gene, into a cell or with DNA isolated from a cell, together with a guide RNA; (ii) treating a uracil-specific excision reagent (USER), to generate double strand cleavage in DNA; (iii) analyzing nucleic acid sequence of the cleaved DNA fragment; and (iv) identifying the double strand cleavage site in the nucleic acid sequence read obtained by the analysis, wherein the DNA isolated from a cell in step (i) is a genomic DNA.
 42. The method of claim 41, which further comprises a step of determining the cleaved site as an off-target site if the site is not an on-target site, after step (iv).
 43. The method of claim 41, wherein the cleavage site identified in step (iv) is a position at which the 5′ end is straightly aligned, or a position showing a double peak pattern at the 5′ end plot, when the obtained nucleotide sequence reads are aligned.
 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the alignment is performed using BWA/GATK or ISAAC after mapping the sequence reads to a reference genome.
 45. The method of claim 43, which further comprises a step of determining a site where two or more sequence reads corresponding to each of Watson strand and Crick strand are straightly aligned as an off-target site.
 46. The method of claim 43, which further comprises a step of determining a site where 20% or more of sequence reads are straightly aligned and the number of sequence reads having the same 5′ end in each of the Watson and Crick strands is 10 or more as an off-target site. 